Research Design | Risks to Relapses in Alcoholism

investigate Design Risks to Relapses in Alcoholism CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION at that manoeuvre is this to be said in favor of drin blood-relatedg that it takes the drunk and first forbidden of society then Out of the institution. Ralph Waldo EmersonAlcohol is a central tense system stimulant at baseborn doses, and depressant at toweringer doses. Alcohol beverages tot up in range of different strengths. Alcohol quite a little embroil beer, wine, spirits (e.g. vodka, gin, whiskey, brandy, rum etc.).In India spirits, i.e. government licensed country, Indian made foreign liquors like rum, whiskey, vodka, gin and illicit di stock-stilled spirits constitute to a greater extent than than 95% inebriant consumption. (Jerald .K and Allan .T, 2006)Alcohol use rowdyisms argon among the most prevalent psychiatric disorder. Data from several epidemiological studies suggest that lifetime prevalence of inebriant use disorder in US is around 8 %.with as m either as 25% suffering sever e psychiatric disturbances. The most prevalent psychiatric symptoms aranxietyanddepression disorders. (Hasin et al., 2007)According to current concepts intoxi terminatetism is considered a disease and alcohol a disease agent which causes acute and chronic in deadlyation, cirrhosis of the liver, toxic psychosis, gastritis, pancreatitis, cardiomyopathy and peripheral neuropathy. Alcohol is an important etiological f exerciseor in in suicide, automobile and other accidents and injuries and deaths due to violence. The health problem for which alcohol is responsible is exclusively part of total accessible damage which includes family disorganization, crime and loss of productivity. (Morgan, M. Y. Ritson, E. B, 2009)The pattern of drinking in India has pitchd from occasional and ritualistic use to neighborly use. These developments baffle raised concerns ab forth the health and the companionable consequences of excessive drinking. Nearly 30% of Indian men and 5% of Indian wom en argon regular users of alcohol. (Balakrishnan. D and Subirkumar Das, 2006)Canvin Rebecca, (2012) reported that friendly factors such as affordability and availability of alcohol, peer pressure and buying of rounds in groups may chip in a role in causing alcohol habituation. guinea pig institute of alcohol abuse and alcoholism (NIAAA, 2000) reported that Tolerance, impaired control, withdrawal and compulsive use be the elements of alcohol colony and as well they reported that 40% of genetic factors and 60% of environmental factors plays a role in consuming alcohol.A serious problem with the treatment of alcohol dependency individuals is very low rate of compliance abstinence about 20%.( Noda et.al 2001) and treatment success rates argon 30-60% depending on outcome measures like abstinence, heavy drinking and social functioning.Alcohol detoxification can be defined as a period of medical treatment, usu bothy including commission, during which a person is supported to overc ome physical and psychological dependency on alcohol (Chang and Kosten 1997).The immediate objectives of alcohol detoxification ar to help the patient to achieve a warmness free state, relieve the immediate symptoms of withdrawal, and treat all co- morbid medical or psychiatric conditions. Alcohol detoxification can be completed safely and effectively in both inmate and outpatient treatment settings. The shape out of detoxification in either setting initially involves the assessment and treatment of acute withdrawal symptoms, which may range from mild (e.g., tremor and insomnia) to severe (e.g., autonomic hyperactivity, seizures, and delirium).Medications are interpretd to help the patient to reduce the withdrawal symptoms. Benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam and chlordiazepoxide) are the most comm entirely used drugs for this purpose, and their efficacy is well established. Benzodiazepines not notwithstanding reduce alcohol withdrawal symptoms only if similarly delay an alco hol withdrawal seizure, which is estimated in 1 to 4% of withdrawal patients (Schuckit, 1997).Disulfiram (Antabuse) is used as an adjunct to put up the prospect of long-term sobriety. Although patient compliance is problematic, disulfiram therapy has successfully decreased frequency of drinking in alcoholics who could not remain abstinent. A study of administer disulfiram administration reported important periods of sobriety of up to 12 months in 60% of patients treated. (Hester., R.K and Miller, W.R., 1989)Additional comp nonpareilnts of alcohol detoxification may include education and counselling to help the patient prepare for long-term treatment, attendance at Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, recreational and social activities, and medical or surgical consultations. (Boyd, M.A, 2005).For patients with mild-to-moderate alcohol withdrawal syndrome, characterized by symptoms such as hand tremor, perspiration, heart palpitation, rest slightness, loss of appetite, nausea/ vomiting, outpatient detoxification is as safe and effective as inpatient detoxification and is much less expensive and less time consuming. Among the drawbacks associated with outpatient detoxification is the attachd pretend of retrovert resulting from the patients easy access to alcoholic beverages. In one of his study of 164 patients randomly assigned to inpatient or outpatient detoxification, significantly to a greater extent inpatients than outpatients completed detoxification. (Hayashida et al. 1989)Miller et al. (1996) conducted a time expensive prospective study on post discharge functioning of one hundred eighty alcoholic patients. They concluded that turnaround is a multidimensional construct that may be better on a lower floorstood if assessed in its septuple dimensions.Relapse promoting factors include anxiety, disposition banish mood, childhood sexual abuse and psychological distress. (Gordon et al., 2006).Relapse inhibiting factors are self efficacy, social suppression , coping (Brown et al., 1995), spirituality, peer retain, group attendance, continuing manage and modernised involvement (Miller et al., 1999)The warning signs of lag are Denial, Avoidance, Crisis, Confusion, Depression, Loss of Control regarding Behavior, Struggling with in the flesh(predicate) Schedule and Self-Pity.(Ballard,K.A.,Kennedy,W.Z and OBrien 2008).An analysis of 48 episodes of relapse revealed that most relapses were associated with lead high-risk situations (1) frustration and anger, (2) social pressure, and (3) interpersonal temptation. (Cooney. 1987)Desai et al, (1993) conducted a treatment outcome study of alcoholism and reported that among those who relapsed, the most common factor for drinking was negative emotional states.Among treated individuals, more severe alcohol-related problems and depressive symptoms, lack of self-efficacy and poor coping skills ache been associated with short-term relapse.Terence T. Gorski Merlene Miller, (1982) Relapse does not b egin with the first drink. Relapse begins when a person reactivates patterns of denial, isolation, elevated stress, and impaired judgment.Polich J.M, (1981) Relapse is so common in alcohol habituation patients and that it is estimated more than 90% of those trying to remain abstinent have at least one relapse before they achieve stand firming sobriety.Foster et al (2000) report a study of 64 alcohol-dependent patients admitted for either 7 or 28 days of alcohol detoxification treatment. About 60% relapsed over the 3-month follow-up period.Marlatt G.A and Gardon J.R (1980) Another way to reduce drug relapse is through relapse prevention strategies. Relapse prevention attempts to group the factors that contribute to relapse into two broad categories 1. Immediate determinants 2. Covert antecedents. Immediate determinants are the environmental and emotional situations that are associated with relapse, including high-risk situations that threaten an individuals sense of control,andexpe ctancies. Covert antecedents, which are less obvious factors influencing relapse, include lifestyle factors such as stress aim and balance, urges andcravings. The relapse prevention model teaches addicts to anticipate relapse by recognizing and coping with various immediate determinants and covert antecedents.NEED FOR THE STUDYAPA (2000), reported that Alcohol dependence, or alcoholism, is frequently a progressive chronic disorder and recognized as a disease. It is a common disorder posing a heavy preventive on patients, their families, and society. It has a high prevalence rate compared with umpteen other diseases and highlights the public health significance.At international aim, GISAH (2005). The Global Information System on Alcohol and Health reported that the harmful use of alcohol results in the death of 2.5 million volume annually. There are 60 different types of diseases where alcohol has a significant causal role. It also causes harm to the well- beingness and health o f people living around the drinker. In 2005, the worldwide total consumption was meet to 6.13 liters of pure alcohol per person at 15 years and older. Unrecorded consumption placards for nearly 30% of the worldwide total adult consumption. (Pratima Murthy, 2010)Alcohol dependence is recognised as mental health disorders by the World Health Organization. It ranked alcohol as the third most important risk factor for the increase in the subjugate of disability-adjusted life years in Portugal, as well as in Europe, preceded by tobacco smoking (second risk factor) and high blood pressure (first risk factor) .WHO ,(2005)Alcohol related hospital admissions increased by 85% amid 2002/03 and 2008/09, accounting for 945,000 admissions with a primary or secondary diagnosis all told or partly related to alcohol in 2006/07 and comprising 7% of all hospital admissions. (North West Public Health Observatory, 2010). (Pratima Murthy, 2010)Manickam, (1994) reported that in Kerala the approximat e number of people being de addicted would be 255 in a year at one centre. Through all the centres, the number of people de addicted would be 308557.After the first month pursual an alcohol detoxification, relapse rates range between 19% for inpatients and 34% for outpatients and increase to about 46 and 48% respectively, later 6 months (Hayashida et al.,1989) in calciumIn national alcohol survey to assess the risk of relapse in people with remitted alcohol dependence, they assessed 17772 adults of alcohol use and alcohol use disorder and followed for 3 years. At the baseline interview, 25% of subjects drank risky amounts, 38% drank lower-risk amounts, and 37% abstained. They concluded that relapse is common among people in remission from alcohol dependence and much more likely if they are drinking risky amounts. The results support the need to carefully monitor and support abstinence in people with remitted alcohol dependence.NIAA (2000) subject field Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcohol reported approximately 90% of alcoholics lead inhabit one or more relapses during the four whatsoever years after treatment. By to a lower placestanding what the common relapse triggers are, we allow for be better prepared to uphold sobriety and live the healthy life we want.Prasad (1996) in a treatment outcome study reported a relapse rate of 41% at 6 months follow up of alcohol dependence patients which was conducted in NIMHANS, Bangalore.Prakash et al. (1997), conducted a study on relapse in alcoholism, found negative emotional states as a major interpersonal trigger for relapse in Bangalore.Elis and McClure, (1992) conducted a meta analysis and found that about 6 of 10 patients with alcohol dependence volition relapse in the 6 months following detoxification, as estimated by the median of 61% relapse rate obtained in several studies. This high rate of relapse in a relatively short period is a reason for searching for the factors that better predict treatment o utcomes.During the observational visit, in Kasturba deaddiction centre, the researcher came crosswise many alcohol dependence patients. There she identified the relapsed cases of alcohol dependence patients and she enquired with the relapsed patients about their return to drinking. They said many of the reasons like family problems, financial problems, participation in ritual functions, peer pressure and unable to control their thoughts of drinking. This triggers the researcher to reduce the relapse cases by identifying the risk factors earlier by using the relapse risk assessment tools during their follow up periods in deaddiction centre. So the researcher on a lower floortook this study as a stepping stone to identify or to explore the risk of relapse of alcohol dependence patients infra detoxification treatment.STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMA study to explore the risk of relapse in alcohol dependence patients who are under detoxification treatment in kasturba deaddiction centre, Coim batore.OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYTo assess the risk of relapse in alcohol dependence patients under detoxification treatmentTo associate the risk of relapse in alcohol dependence patients who are under detoxification treatment with selected demographic and clinical variables.OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONRelapseRefers falling back into a state of introductory drinking after detoxification treatment which is measured by alcohol relapse risk scale.Alcohol dependence patientAlcohol dependence is a substance related disorder in which an individual is addicted to alcohol both physi discovery and mentally, and continues to use alcohol notwithstanding significant areas of dysfunction. In this study it refers patients who are coming for follow up under detoxification treatment in kasturba deaddiction centre.Detoxification treatmentRefers to a treatment in alcohol dependence patients for removal of existing toxins from the affirm which is accumulated because of alcoholism by using drugs like Libriu m, Diazepam, and Lorazepam.ASSUMPTIONRelapse may be common and predictable in alcohol dependence patients under detoxification treatment.CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKA conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of achieve or to present a best-loved approach to an idea or thought. Also its a theoretical structure of assumptions, principles, and rules that holds together the ideas comprising a broad concept.Thetranstheoretical modelof behavior change assess an individuals readiness to act on a naked healthier behavior, and provides strategies, or processes of change to guide the individual through the stages of change to Action and Maintenance.James O. Prochaskaof theUniversity of Rhode Islandand colleagues highly-developed the transtheoretical model of conduct change in 1977.It is establish on analysis and use of different theories of psychotherapy, hence the name transtheoretical. faceS OF CHANGEThere are 5 stages in transtheoretical model. transmit is a process i nvolving progress through a series of stages.STAGE I PRECONTEMPLATION (NOT READY) The process of change of alcohol drinking behaviour of an alcohol dependence individual starts with consciousness- raising about ill effects of alcohol by public medias like television, radio, and internet and also through news story, health magazines etc.STAGE II CONTEMPLATION (GETTING READY)The alcohol dependence individual evaluates himself about his alcohol drinking behaviour and imagines how he will be when he stops the alcohol drinking behaviour.STAGE III PREPARATION (READY)The individual realizes that the society is also not supporting the unhealthy behaviours like alcohol drinking. So he makes commitments to change this unhealthy behaviour by believing his ability to change.STAGE IV ACTIONThe alcohol dependence individual makes discussion with his family and friends about changing the alcohol drinking behaviour.With family and friends support he approaches deaddiction centre to change his alcoh ol drinking behaviour.STAGE V MAINTENANCEAfter getting inpatient detoxification, the alcohol dependence individuals are coming regularly for follow up visits to deaddiction centre and they are teaching about cue control measures,mainteneance of self efficacy and how to manage high risk situations.After the maintenance the alcohol dependence individual will enter either intoTERMINATION the alcohol dependence individual possess zero in temptation and craving and they are sure they will not return to their old unhealthy habit as a way of coping.RELAPSE-The alcohol dependence individual return from Action or Maintenance stage to his earlier unhealthy alcohol drinking behaviour because of stimulus induced vulnerability factors,emotionality problems,compulsivity for alcohol,lack of negative expectancy for alcohol and positive expectancy for alcohol.Intersectionality Making a differenceIntersectionality Making a differenceIntersectionality is defined as the kinds among multiple dimensio ns of identities and modalities of social relations and experiences of exclusion and subordination, including sex, class, race, ethnicity, nationality and sexuality (Collins 2000 McCall 2005 Davis 2008). It starts on the premise that everyone live multiple, layered identities. The theory attempts to expose the different types of discrimination and disadvantages that occur as a consequence of the junto of biological, social and cultural identities (AWID 2004).Intersectionality, as coined by Crenshaw (1989) attempts to address the fact that the experiences and struggles of women of colour fell between the cracks of both feminist and anti-racist discourse (AWID 2004 Davis 2008). Subsequently, this concept had extended to the ground of women holding different disadvantaged social identities. Such merchandises indicate that oppression cannot be reduced to one fundamental type, and that oppressions intersect together in producing harm and inequality, instead of multiplying around the different social identities (Collins 2000 Conanhan 2009 Yuval-Davis 2007). An intelligence of intersectionality suggested the attainment of political and social equality of disadvantaged women and improving the global democratic system (Harjunen 2008).This paper attempts to understand the intersection of social identities of immaterial Domestic Workers (FDWs) in capital of capital of capital of Singapore. The number of women coming into Singapore to work as a FDW had increased over the years, and the growing of these outsiders had created many negative cracks towards them, discursively created by the State and the society. By understanding the intersectionality these women face, it will establish an understanding of what shapes their experiences and opportunities as an FDW in a foreign land. subject of study Foreign Domestic Worker (FDW) in SingaporeAs the temporary home to 196,000 Foreign Domestic Workers (FDWs) and an estimate of employment of one live-in national worker in every five homeholds (Daipi 2010), Singapore was and is an immigrant society. The FDW performs various household and maintenance chores for the families, including cooking, cleaning and care-giving to the young and elderly. Evidently, many FDWs now are the caregiver for babies and toddlers time their mothers were obliged to put in long working hours in the old male model and subordinate their family time for work demands. This may constitute more than mere care-giving, where many FDWs devote their love and emotional attachment to their young employers as a response to what the FDWs cannot provide for her own child (Hochschild 2004). With the introduction of the Foreign Maid Scheme in 19781, labour mobilization of women was promoted by the government which prioritises economic development that brought about the significance of the Singapore female labour. FDWs have since been a visible feature of households in Singapore. This gradually led to the outlook of an ideal family in the S ingapore context that comprises not only the kin but also the fictive kin.The ideal family in Singapore is one that consists of two working parents, a foreign maid who looks after their child(ren) and an older relative usually a grandmother to supervise the municipal worker (Teo 2011).According to Ochiai (2010), the model of Care Diamonds as proposed depicts patterns of care provision in each society in four different sectors, namely the State, the Market, the Family (and Relatives) and the Community.CUsersshiminDesktopPicture1.pngFigure . Care Diamonds in SingaporeIn the Singapore context, we see that there is a good proportion of care responsibility of familialism falling onto the Market, which reflects the bulk of welfare responsibility towards its members, in terms of both income distribution and care provision (Ochiai 2010) falling from the Family into the hands of the foreign national and care workers from the Market. This signifies the importance and prevalence of FDW in Singapore families, in both child care and elder care. It also shows the trend where families are now more prone in outsourcing their filial piety, which is also known as liberal familialism as the cost of purchasing care table services is still borne by the family (Ochiai 2010). This is constituted as discussed from the increase participation of female labour into the workforce that displaces the inherent caregiver role from the woman in the family to the woman from the market.Outsourcing the domestic chores in the house to the FDWs living in, they may become not merely an employee but close to a fictive kin through the constant inter exercises. This propels the assignment of kin relationships to non-family who embody the special characteristics of family, and are those who provide caregiving and emotional attachment like family and are given the labour of kin with its attendant regardion, rights, and obligations (Gubruim and Buckholdt 1982 Tronto 1993 Karner 1998).FDW and Sing aporeans2FDWs in Singapore are live-in domestic helpers (Ministry of Manpower 2013), and this establishes a close fictive kinship living under one roof. As a Singaporean who was raised by a kin (instead of a fictive kin) all my life, I decided to interview some employers of FDWs and learn about how they perceive these supposedly fictive kin.In my understanding, the ac knowledgement of the emplacement of a fictive kin has to be conscious between the FDW and the employer like a two-way traffic. This contradicted with the literature definition (Tronto 1993) which only addresses fictive kin as a person who provides kin-like care. Though most of these employers deem the help of FDWs to ease their load in housework, some of them do not recognise the FDWs as a fictive kin, but as a mere employee who I hire with money. For the employers who do not deem the FDWs as helpful, they made frequent complaints about the FDWs work including criticism such as stupid and clumsy towards the FDWs produ ctivity in front of others in the presence of the FDW, lack of appreciation by saying interest or thank you or blamed for mistakes that were not committed by the FDWs. This can adversely affect the psychological well-being of the FDW who are labelled as quiet indignities. Moreover, research shows that though there is a decrease in maid abuse cases in Singapore for the past 10 years, there still possesses a great number of cases where FDWs were stripped of basic human rights, including not being allowed to go out of the house, not having enough time to rest and having a heavy workload (Transient Workers Count Too 2011). This affects the physical well-being of the FDWs. The psychologically and physical well-being of the FDWs tend to be jeopardised in Singapore because of the inferior-superior mentality held by the employers towards their FDWs.A minute fraction of the employers acknowledged the FDWs as a great help in the house and a fictive kin, where these employers will buy new cl othes for the FDWs, invites her to join in for dinners, and bring her along during family vacations.FDW and IntersectionalityFigure . Intersectionality in FDWs in SingaporeAs a FDW, some of the axes of social identities that she holds include the intersection of her gender, nationality and social class. Each of these axes contributes to inequality on its own facet, and a complete picture will be portrayed when these facets intersect. As a social construct, gender emphasises the biological and psychological differences between man and women, which had constituted to the inherent power relationships. Nationality is also a social construct that emphasises on the basis of the arbitrary fragment and belongingness towards geographical spaces. Social class as a social identity determines the access to re witnessers, which then shapes the power and position of the individual and the family in the society.Notably, these FDWs braved through obstacles to come to a foreign land alone to work i n. The inherent power relations from different social identities differentiated the FDW and the employer, in an in-group-out-group context. This empowers employers to discriminate and oppress these FDWs which affect their opportunities and experiences as a FDW in Singapore, and it is tougher when she is helpless without the support of her community.Gender and Social ClassIn Singapore, FDWs had been portrayed as the lowest strata in the society. The society, constituted by the local anesthetic policies3, associated an FDW to only the female gender. The legalization of the legislation that FDWs are strictly females also constitute to the internalization and naturalization of women occupying jobs in this sector. Comparatively, their female counterparts in Singapore were able to enjoy an overall increase in access to education, higher education, healthcare from the industrialization of the nation in the late 1960s, allowing Singapore to attain one of the highest standards of living amon gst its neighbours in Southeast Asia. This feeler of status was not universal and not extended to the FDWs, who were mainly from Indonesia and Philippines (Humans Right Watch 2005 Arifin 2012). Despite both females being conformed in a patriarchal society in Singapore, the FDWs and the Singapore females were clearly distinct in their class status which is evident from the developments of the two groups of countries. This is despite that many FDWs were college graduates (International Labour Organisation 2007) but still segregated into the low-wage, low-prestige domestic work in Singapore. This instils a superior-inferior relationship between Singaporeans and FDWs. This hence led to negative stigmas from the Singapore women who were the employers, who acknowledged the FDWs as their assistance and also their inferior (Arifin 2012).Gender and NationalityAs the policies4in Singapore discourage Singaporean women to participate in the domestic service sector, there is a synonym of women from the sending countries (predominantly Indonesia and Philippines) as maids in Singapore (Human Rights Watch 2005 Law and Nadeau 2009). As the provision of domestic service is seen as difficult, annoying and demeaning, these FDWs are portrayed as unskilled labour. In the patriarchal society, these women are not duly respected for their contributions, yet perceived as inferior as of their gender as a female and their nationality recognised as sending countries for FDWs both identities equating to the identity of maid. This created a discursive idea of FDWs as former(a) in the society. They are held with sharp contrast with other foreigners who come to Singapore with better skills, commonly addressed as foreign talent or expatriates. The call for talent capital from places such as United Kingdom, Australia and North America had allowed Singapore to be ranked as the top expat destination in the world (HSBC 2012). Evidently, the economic and social development between the two groups of origin countries differs greatly. Though there are more FDWs than foreign expatriates in the country (National Population and talents Division 2013), there is a huge disparity between, in their income, respect received, and inherent stigma since these foreign expatriates are the people with the ability to hire these FDWs despite both being foreigners in the country. Discourses by the State portray FDWs as a sexual and social threat that breaks up Singaporean families and portrays expatriates as saviours of National Survival (Koh 2003 Human Rights Watch 2005). The demonization by the State further deepens the existing stereotypes towards FDWs.Intersection of social identitiesThe intersection of gender, social class and nationality constructed the negative stigma of these FDWs in Singapore. It created a social hierarchy where FDWs were strained to the lowest strata without any mobility. Mobility is prohibited by the government through their policies that forbid FDWs to be covered under the Employment Act, or to be able to obtain citizenship from her length of stay and contribution to the economy (Human Rights Watch 2012 Ministry of Manpower 2013). In contrast, mobility is made available in countries like Canada where their live-in caregivers are permitted for permanent residence in Canada after two years of authorized live-in employment in Canadian households (Citizenship and Immigration Canada 2013).Reduced as a commodity in the global labour market, the FDWs brought about seemly traces of slavery in the modern world. Without adequate social and legal recognition for paid domestic service, the commercialised employment relationship with these fictive-kin FDWs can only be confined in an oppressive, family-like hierarchy. FDWs often engages in a power struggle (and often lose out) as they are not in any position, financially or psychologically, to negotiate their working conditions even if they deem it over exhaustive (Ueno 2008).With the improvement in soc ial aspects in life including educational profile and healthcare for women, we see an increase of 10.3% in the women participating in the labour force in Singapore for the past 10 years (Ministry of Manpower 2011). With more women expected to participate in the economy in the future, there will be an increase in the care gap in families which signifies the greater need for FDWs. However, this may also means there will be more opportunities for oppressions to take place that will further undermine the physical and psychological well-being of FDWs.The next step RecognitionThe struggle of FDWs in Singapore exceeds more than what the intersectionality of social identities as discussed they also have to struggle with their employers lack of appreciation of FDWs as a fictive kin. This can be problematic because a fictive kin relationship improves the quality of care and retrieves personal meanings for both the provider and the recipient (Lan 2003) and the oppression will be a hinder to the delivery of a kin-like care service. However, their social identities which are ascribed rather than achieved, confines them into a superior-inferior relationship with their female counterparts in Singapore.It reciprocates if an employer is more understanding to the FDW and evidently the appreciation will be mutual. Institutions such as the employer and the State can step in to improve the situation where both the sending and receiving countries can include FDWs into Employment Acts to protect them from physical and psychological harm, and to provide them with basic rights extended to every employee. As employers, one has to be reflexive and mindful that the FDW is also another human being with her own thoughts, feelings and behaviours, and hence behaving as a proper employer who treats her FDW well, even to the extent of a fictive kin, will be a good capital for the family members. By being aware of how they understanding their own experience and how their social identities intersect, it is empathetic to relate to how these women struggle through oppressions, all by herself.AppendixForeign Maid Scheme in SingaporeIn 1978, Singapore introduced the Foreign Maid Scheme which permits the employment of women from selected Asian countries as live-in domestic workers (UNIFEM Singapore 2011). The scheme is introduced to encourage the participation of local women in the formal economy by introducing an extra helper to maintain the family. The high and steady rate of economic growth demanded massive number of labour in all sectors. The low population and low fertility rate of Singaporeans thus was not able to fulfil the demands of the labour market. Moreover, Singaporeans were not keen to work in the unskilled sectors including domestic work, as influenced by the rising socioeconomic conditions and educational level of Singaporeans.According to the Ministry of Manpower, FDWs will be employed under strict regulations, including their source country, age and educa tional attainment, and sequent regulations inbound which assures their transience. These regulations were set forth as the political leaders assume that the presence of unskilled migrant workers and domestic workers will disrupt the Singapore society if left unregulated (Yeoh and Annadhurai 2008).Requirements for a Foreign Domestic WorkerThe following summarises the FDWs requirements in Singapore (Ministry of Manpower 2013. The list of requirements can be found in http//www.mom.gov.sg/foreign-manpower/passes-visas/work-permit-fdw/before-you-apply/Pages/basic-requirements-of-a-foreign-domestic-worker.aspx CUsersshiminDesktopPicture2.pngIntersectionality as a critique to Multiple inequalityMentioned in the EU key out on the Multiple Discrimination in EU Law, EU initially had a sole definition of multiple discrimination as an overarching flightiness, impersonal vox populi for all instances of discrimination between multiple domains including race, age, language, ethnicity, cultur e, religion or disability or because they are indigenous people (UN 1995).The definition of intersectionality debated the EU legal discourse and reinforces the importance of encompassing the notion of gender as an important domain when it discusses the discrimination suffered primarily by the intersection of domains in many instances of discrimination suffered especially by women. It criticises that the mathematical notion that may be conjured by multiplying around the separate strands of discrimination which in reality intersect (Conanhan 2009 Yuval-Davis 2007).Precision Agriculture Advantages and DisadvantagesPrecision Agriculture Advantages and DisadvantagesPrecision horticulturePrecision farming or precision cultivation is an hoidenish concept relying on the existence of in-field variability. It requires the use of new technologies, such as global attitude (GPS), sensors, satellites or aerial images, and information management tools (GIS) to assess and understand variations. Collected information may be used to more precisely evaluate best sowing density, estimate fertilizers and other inputs needs, and to more accurately predict crop yields. It seeks to avoid applying inflexible practices to a crop, regardless of local soil/climate conditions, and may help to better assess local situations of disease or lodging.Satellites allow farmers to easily survey their land.2 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) monitor can find the location of a field to within one meter. It can then present a series of GIS maps that demonstrate which fields are moist or dry, and where there is wearing of soil and other soil factors that stunt crop growth. The info can be used by the farmer to automatically regulate the machine drill of fertilizer and swearwordicide2.In the American Midwest (US) it is associated not with sustainable agriculture but with mainstream farmers who are trying to maximize profits by spending money only in areas that need fertilizer. This practice all ows the farmer to vary the rate of fertilizer across the field according to the need identified by GPS channelise Grid Sampling. Fertilizer that would have been spread in areas that dont need it can be placed in areas that do, thereby optimizing its use.Precision farming may be used to improve a field or a farm management from several perspectivesagronomical perspective adjustment of cultural practices to take into account the real needs of the crop (e.g., better fertilization management)technical perspective better time management at the farm level (e.g. planning of agricultural activity)environmental perspective reduction of agricultural impacts (better estimation of crop nitrogen needs implying limitation of nitrogen run-off)economical perspective increase of the output and/or reduction of the input, increase of efficiency (e.g., lower cost of nitrogen fertilization practice)Other benefits for the farmergeostatistics combine farmingIntegrated Pest centering nourishing budgeting nutrient managementprecision viticultureAgricultureLandsat programGeostatistics is a branch of statistics focusing on spatiotemporal datasets. Developed originally to predict verisimilar distributions for mining operations, it is currently applied in diverse disciplines including petroleum geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, geochemistry, geometallurgy, geography, forestry, environmental control, landscape ecology, soil science, and agriculture (esp. in precision farming). Geostatistics is applied in wide-ranging branches of geography, particularly those involving the spread of disease (epidemiology), the practice of commerce and military planning (logistics), and the development of efficient spatial networks. Geostatistics are incorporated in tools such as geographic information systems (GIS) and digital elevation models.HistoryThis section requires expansion with details.BackgroundWhen any phenomena is measured, the observation methodology will dictate th e accuracy of subsequent analysis in geography, this issue is complicated by unique variables and spatial patterns such as geospatial topology. An interesting feature in geostatistics is that every location displays some form of spatial pattern, whether in the form of the environment, climate, pollution, urbanization or human health. This is not to state that all variables are spatially dependent, simply that variables are unable(predicate) of measure separate from their surroundings, such that there can be no perfect control population. Whether the study is concerned with the nature of traffic patterns in an urban core, or with the analysis of weather patterns over the Pacific, there are always variables which escape measurement this is determined directly by the scale and distribution of the data collection, or survey, and its methodology. Limitations in data collection make it impossible to make a direct measure of continuous spatial data without inferring probabilities, some of these probability functions are applied to create an interpolation surface predicting unmeasured variables at innumerable locations.Geostatistical termsRegionalized variable theoryCovariance functionSemi-varianceVariogramKrigingRange (geostatistics)Sill (geostatistics)Nugget effect reflectionA major contributor to this section (or its creator) appears to have a conflict of interest with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedias content policies, particularly neutral point of view. Please discuss further on the talk knave. (November 2009)Jan W Merks, a mineral sampling expert consultant from Canada, has strongly criticized1 geostatistics since 1992. Referring to it as witch science2 and scientific fraud, he claims that geostatistics is an invalid branch of statistics. Merks submits2 that geostatisticsignores the variance of Agterbergs distance-weighted average point grade,ignores the concept of microscope stages of freedom of a data set when testing for spati al dependence by applying Fishers F-test to the variance of a set and the first variance term of the ordered set,abuses statistics by not using analysis of variance properly,replaced genuine variances of individual(a) distance-weighted average point grades with pseudo-variances of sets of distance-weighted average point grades, violating the one-to-one correspondence between variances and functions such as Agterbergs distance-weighted average point grade.Furthermore, Merks claims geostatistics inflates mineral reserve and resources such as in the case of Bre-Xs fraud. Merkss expertise and credibility are supported by several company executives, who regularly hire his consulting services3.Philip and Watson have also criticized geostatistics in the past 4.There is a consensus that inappropriate use of geostatistics makes the method susceptible to erroneous reading of results35.Related softwaregslib is a set of fortran 77 routines (open source) implementing most of the unsullied geos tatistics estimation and simulation algorithmssgems is a cross-platform (windows, unix), open-source software that implements most of the classical geostatistics algorithms (kriging, Gaussian and indicator simulation, etc) as well as new developments (multiple-points geostatistics). It also provides an synergetic 3D visualization and offers the scripting capabilities of python.gstat is an open source computer code for multivariable geostatistical modelling, prediction and simulation. The gstat functionality is also available as an S extension, either as R software package or S-Plus library.besides gstat, R has at least half-dozen other packages dedicated to geostatistics and other areas in spatial statistics.Notes1. A web settle that criticizes Matheronian geostatistics a b await (Merks 1992)3. a b Sandra Rubin, Whistleblower raises doubts over ore bodies, Financial Post, September 30, 2002. See (Philip and Watson 1986).5. Statistics for Spatial Data, Revised Edition, Noel A. C. Cressie, ISBN 978-0-471-00255-0.References1. Armstrong, M and Champigny, N, 1988, A Study on Kriging Small Blocks, CIM Bulletin, Vol 82, No 923Armstrong, M, 1992, Freedom of Speech? De Geeostatisticis, July, No 143. Champigny, N, 1992, Geostatistics A tool that works, The Northern Miner, May 184. Clark I, 1979, Practical Geostatistics, Applied Science Publishers, London5. David, M, 1977, Geostatistical Ore Reserve Estimation, Elsevier scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam6. Hald, A, 1952, Statistical Theory with Engineering Applications, John Wiley Sons, New York7. Chils, J.P., Delfiner, P. 1999. Geostatistics modelling spatial uncertainty, Wiley Series in Probability and Mathematical Statistics, 695 pp.8. Deutsch, C.V., Journel, A.G, 1997. GSLIB Geostatistical Software program library and Users Guide (Applied Geostatistics Series), Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 369 pp., http//www.gslib.com/9. Deutsch, C.V., 2002. Geostatistical Reservoir Modeling, Oxford Univers ity Press, 384 pp., http//www.statios.com/WinGslib/index.html10. Isaaks, E.H., Srivastava R.M. Applied Geostatistics. 1989.11. ISO/DIS 11648-1 Statistical aspects of sampling from bulk materials-Part1 General principles12. Journel, A G and Huijbregts, 1978, Mining Geostatistics, Academic Press13.Kitanidis, P.K. invention to Geostatistics Applications in Hydrogeology, Cambridge University Press. 1997.14. Lantujoul, C. 2002. Geostatistical simulation models and algorithms. Springer, 256 pp.15. Lipschutz, S, 1968, Theory and Problems of Probability, McCraw-Hill Book Company, New York.16. Matheron, G. 1962. Trait de gostatistique applique. Tome 1, Editions Technip, Paris, 334 pp.17. Matheron, G. 1989. Estimating and choosing, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.18. McGrew, J. Chapman, Monroe, Charles B., 2000. An introduction to statistical problem solving in geography, second edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.19. Merks, J W, 1992, Geostatistics or voodoo science, The Northern Miner, May 1820. Merks , J W, Abuse of statistics, CIM Bulletin, January 1993, Vol 86, No 96621. Myers, Donald E. What Is Geostatistics?22. Philip, G M and Watson, D F, 1986, Matheronian Geostatistics Quo Vadis?, Mathematical Geology, Vol 18, No 123. Sharov, A Quantitative Population Ecology, 1996, http//www.ento.vt.edu/sharov/PopEcol/popecol.html24. Shine, J.A., Wakefield, G.I. A comparison of superintend imagery classification using analyst-chosen and geostatistically-chosen training sets, 1999, http//www.geovista.psu.edu/ situates/geocomp99/Gc99/044/gc_044.htm25. Strahler, A. H., and Strahler A., 2006, Introducing Physical Geography, 4th Ed., Wiley.26. Volk, W, 1980, Applied Statistics for Engineers, Krieger Publishing Company, Huntington, New York.27. Wackernagel, H. 2003. multivariate geostatistics, Third edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 387 pp.28. Yang, X. S., 2009, Introductory Mathematics for Earth Scientists, Dunedin Academic Press, 240pp.29. Youden, W J, 1951, Statistical Methods for Chemists John Wiley Sons, New York.External linksKriging link, contains explanations of variance in geostatsArizona university geostats knaveA resource on the internet about geostatistics and spatial statisticsOn-Line Library that chronicles Matherons journey from classical statistics to the new science of geostatisticsRetrieved from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeostatisticsCategories GeostatisticsHidden categories Statistics articles needing expert economic aid Articles needing expert attention from August 2009 All articles needing expert attention Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2009 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles to be expand from January 2010 All articles to be expanded Wikipedia expand-section niche with explanation text Articles to be expanded from August 2008 Wikipedia articles with sections containing possible conflicts of interestIntegrated farming (or integrated agriculture) is a commonly and broadly used pronounce to explain a more i ntegrated approach to farming as compared to existing monoculture approaches. It refers to agricultural systems that integrate livestock and crop yield and may some measure be known as Integrated Biosystems.While not often considered as part of the permaculture movement Integrated do work is a similar building block systems approach to agriculture1. There have been efforts to link the two together such as at the 2007 International Permaculture Conference in Brazil2. Agro-ecology (which was developed at University of atomic number 20 Santa Cruz) and Bio-dynamic farming also describe similar integrated approaches.Examples includepig tractor systems where the animals are confined in crop fields well prior to pose and plow the field by digging for rootspoultry used in orchards or vineyards after harvest to clear rotten fruit and widows pasturages speckle fertilizing the soilcattle or other livestock allowed to graze cover crops between crops on farms that contain both cropland and pasture (or where transhumance is employed)Water based agricultural systems that provide way for effective and efficient recycling of farm nutrients producing fuel, fertilizer and a compost tea/mineralized irrigation water in the process.In 1993 FARRE (Forum de lAgriculture Raisonne Respecteuse lEnvironnement) developed agricultural techniques France as part of an attempt to reconcile agricultural methods with the principles of sustainable development. FARRE, promotes an integrated and/or multi-sector approach to food production that includes profitability, safety, animal welfare, social responsibility and environmental care.Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives (formed in 1994 by the eco-entrepreneur 1) developed a similar approach to FARRE seeking to promote agricultural and industrial production models that sought to incorporate natures wisdom into the process. ZERI helped support an effort by an environmental engineer from Mauritius named George Chan.Chan working with a netwo rk of poly-culture farming pioneers began refining Integrated Farming practices that had already been developed in south-east Asia in the 60,70s and 80s, building on the ancient Night soil farming practice.In China, programs embracing this form of integrated farming have been successful in demonstrating how an intensive growing systems can use organic and sustainable farming practices, while providing a high agriculture yield.Taking what he learned from the Chinese during his time there, Chan worked at the UN University in the 1990s and forwarded an approach to Integrated Farming which was termed Integrated Biomass Systems working specifically under the UNU/ZERI ZERI cornerstone Program. Chan during his work with UNU sought to make the case that Integrated Biomass Systems were well suited to help small island nations and low lying tropical regions become more self-reliant and prosperous in the production of food3. Working with ZERI, he developed several prototypes for this approach around the world including sites in Namibia and Fiji. The scientifically verified results in a UNDP sponsored congress in 1997 resulted in the adoption of the IBS by the State Government of Paran, Brazil where dozens of piggeries have applied the system generating food, energy while improving health and environmental conditions.Montfort Boys Town in Fiji was one of the first Integrated Biomass Systems developed outside of Southeast Asia with the support of UNU, UNDP and other international agencies. The calculate which is still operational continues to be a model of how farm operations can provide multiple benefits to stakeholders both local and international.ZERI Bag had a significant African component that included assisting Father Godfrey Nzamujo in the development of the Songhai Farm Integrated Farming project in Benin4 .Most recently The Heifer Foundation a major international NGO based in the USA has taken a lead role in deploying Integrated Farming so that it can be repli cated globally as an effective approach to sustainable farming in non-affluent regions such as Vietnam5.References1. Steve Divers work linking Integrated Farming with Permaculture http//attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/perma.html2. Report includes reference to presentation on Integrated Farming by permaculture and ZERI practitioner Eric Fedus and Alexandre Takamatsu3. Small Islands and ZERI A unique case for the Application of ZERI A Paper presented by George Chan of the United Nations University at an International Symposium on Small Islands and Sustainable Development organized by the United Nations University and the National Land Agency of Japan http//www.gdrc.org/oceans/chan.html4. ZERI Bag was designed to focus on small scale deployment of appropriate technologies with a focus on the Integrated Biomass System approach developed by ZERI and George Chan http//www.zeri.unam.na/africa.htm5. http//www.heifer.org/site/c.edJRKQNiFiG/b.2877337/External linksFARRE homepageIntegrated farmi ng of fish, crop and livestockDesign an construction of an intergated fish farmIntegrated Farming System by George Chanwiki on integrated farmingSonghai Centre in BeninIPMIn agriculture, integrated pest management (IPM) is a pest control strategy that uses a variety of complementary strategies including automatonlike devices, physical devices, genetic, biological, cultural management, and chemical management. These methods are done in three stages prevention, observation, and intervention. It is an ecological approach with a main goal of significantly diminution or eliminating the use of pesticides while at the same time managing pest populations at an acceptable level.1For their leadership in developing and spreading IPM worldwide, Dr. Perry Adkisson and Dr. Ray F. metalworker received the 1997 World Food Prize.History of IPMShortly after World War II, when synthetic insecticides became widely available, entomologists in California developed the concept of supervised insect contr ol. Around the same time, entomologists in cotton-belt states such as Arkansas were advocating a similar approach. Under this scheme, insect control was supervised by measure up entomologists, and insecticide applications were based on conclusions reached from periodic monitoring of pest and natural-enemy populations. This was viewed as an alternative to calendar-based insecticide programs. Supervised control was based on a healthful knowledge of the ecology and analysis of projected trends in pest and natural-enemy populations.Supervised control formed much of the conceptual basis for the integrated control that University of California entomologists articulated in the 1950s. Integrated control sought to identify the best mix of chemical and biological controls for a given insect pest. Chemical insecticides were to be used in manner least disruptive to biological control. The term integrated was thus synonymous with compatible. Chemical controls were to be applied only after regu lar monitoring indicated that a pest population had reached a level (the economic threshold) that required treatment to prevent the population from reaching a level (the economic injury level) at which economic losses would exceed the cost of the artificial control measures.IPM extended the concept of integrated control to all classes of pests and was expanded to include tactics other than just chemical and biological controls. Artificial controls such as pesticides were to be applied as in integrated control, but these now had to be compatible with control tactics for all classes of pests. Other tactics, such as host- show resistance and cultural manipulations, became part of the IPM arsenal. IPM added the multidisciplinary element, involving entomologists, pose pathologists, nematologists, and weed scientists.In the United States, IPM was formulated into national policy in February 1972 when President Nixon directed federal agencies to take steps to advance the concept and applic ation of IPM in all relevant sectors. In 1979, President Carter established an interagency IPM Coordinating Committee to ensure development and implementation of IPM practices. (references The History of IPM, BioControl Reference Center. 1How IPM worksAn IPM regime can be quite simple or sophisticated. Historically, the main focus of IPM programs was on agricultural insect pests.2 Although originally developed for agricultural pest management, IPM programs are now developed to encompass diseases, weeds, and other pests that interfere with the management objectives of sites such as residential and commercial structures, lawn and turf areas, and home and community gardens.An IPM system is designed around six basic components The US Environmental Protection Agency has a useful set of IPM principles. 21. Acceptable pest levels The emphasis is on control, not eradication. IPM holds that wiping out an entire pest population is often impossible, and the attempt can be more costly, environm entally unsafe, and frequently unachievable. IPM programs first work to establish acceptable pest levels, called action thresholds, and apply controls if those thresholds are crossed. These thresholds are pest and site specific, meaning that it may be acceptable at one site to have a weed such as white clover, but at another site it may not be acceptable. This stops the pest gaining resistance to chemicals produced by the plant or applied to the crops. If many of the pests are killed then any that have resistance to the chemical will rapidly reproduce forming a resistant population. By not killing all the pests there are some un-resistant pests left that will dilute any resistant genes that appear.2. Preventive cultural practices Selecting varieties best for local growing conditions, and maintaining healthy crops, is the first line of defense, together with plant quarantine and cultural techniques such as crop sanitation (e.g. removal of diseased plants to prevent spread of infectio n).3. Monitoring Regular observation is the cornerstone of IPM. Observation is broken into two steps, first inspection and second identification.3 Visual inspection, insect and spore traps, and other measurement methods and monitoring tools are used to monitor pest levels. Accurate pest identification is critical to a successful IPM program. Record- memory is essential, as is a thorough knowledge of the behavior and reproductive cycles of target pests. Since insects are cold-blooded, their physical development is dependent on the temperature of their environment. Many insects have had their development cycles modeled in terms of degree days. Monitor the degree days of an environment to determine when is the optimal time for a specific insects outbreak.4. Mechanical controls Should a pest reach an unacceptable level, mechanical methods are the first options to consider. They include simple hand-picking, erecting insect barriers, using traps, vacuuming, and tillage to disrupt breeding .5. Biological controls Natural biological processes and materials can provide control, with tokenish environmental impact, and often at low cost. The main focus here is on promoting beneficial insects that eat target pests. Biological insecticides, derived from naturally occurring microorganisms (e.g. Bt, entomopathogenic fungi and entomopathogenic nematodes), also fit in this category.6. Chemical controls Synthetic pesticides are generally only used as required and often only at specific times in a pests life cycle. Many of the newer pesticide groups are derived from plants or naturally occurring substances (e.g. nicotine, pyrethrum and insect juvenile hormone analogues), and further biology-based or ecological techniques are under evaluation.IPM is applicable to all types of agriculture and sites such as residential and commercial structures, lawn and turf areas, and home and community gardens. Reliance on knowledge, experience, observation, and integration of multiple technique s makes IPM a perfect fit for organic farming (the synthetic chemical option is simply not considered). For large-scale, chemical-based farms, IPM can reduce human and environmental characterisation to hazardous chemicals, and potentially lower overall costs of pesticide application material and labor.1. Proper identification of pest What is it? Cases of mistaken identity may result in ineffective actions. If plant damage due to over-watering are mistaken for a fungal infection, a spray may be used needlessly and the plant still dies.2. Learn pest and host life cycle and biology. At the time you see a pest, it may be too late to do much about it except maybe spray with a pesticide. Often, there is another stage of the life cycle that is susceptible to preventative actions. For example, weeds reproducing from last years seed can be prevented with mulches. Also, learning what a pest needs to survive allows you to remove these.3. Monitor or sample environment for pest population How many are here? Preventative actions must be taken at the correct time if they are to be effective. For this reason, once you have correctly identified the pest, you begin monitoring BEFORE it becomes a problem. For example, in school cafeterias where roaches may be expected to appear, sticky traps are set out before school starts. Traps are checked at regular intervals so you can see them right away and do something before they get out of hand. Some of the things you might want to monitor about pest populations include Is the pest present/absent? What is the distribution all over or only in certain spots? Is the pest population increasing or decreasing?4. Establish action threshold (economic, health or aesthetic) How many are too many? In some cases, a certain number of pests can be tolerated. Soybeans are quite tolerant of defoliation, so if you have only a few caterpillars in the field and their population is not increasing dramatically, there is no need to do anything. Convers ely, there is a point at which you MUST do something. For the farmer, that point is the one at which the cost of damage by the pest is MORE than the cost of control. This is an economic threshold. Tolerance of pests varies also by whether or not they are a health hazard (low tolerance) or merely a cosmetic damage (high tolerance in a non-commercial situation). Personal tolerances also vary many people dislike any insect some people cannot tolerate dandelions in their yards. Different sites may also have varying requirements based on specific areas. White clover may be perfectly acceptable on the sides of a tee box on a golf course, but unacceptable in the fairway where it could cause confusion in the field of play.45. Choose an appropriate combination of management tactics For any pest situation, there will be several options to consider. Options include, mechanical or physical control, cultural controls, biological controls and chemical controls. Mechanical or physical controls in clude picking pests off plants, or using netting or other material to exclude pests such as birds from grapes or rodents from structures. Cultural controls include keeping an area free of conducive conditions by removing or storing waste properly, removing diseased areas of plants properly. Biological controls can be support either through conservation of natural predators or augmentation of natural predators5. Augmentative control includes the introduction of naturally occurring predators at either an inundative or inoculative level6. An inundative release would be one that seeks to inundate a site with a pests predator to impact the pest population78. An inoculative release would be a smaller number of pest predators to supplement the natural population and provide current control.9 Chemical controls would include horticultural oils or the application of pesticides such as insecticides and herbicides. A Green Pest Management IPM program would use pesticides derived from plants, s uch as botanicals, or other naturally occurring materials.6. Evaluate results How did it work? Evaluation is often one of the most important steps.10 This is the process to review an IPM program and the results it generated. Asking the following questions is useful Did your actions have the desired effect? Was the pest prevented or managed to your satisfaction? Was the method itself satisfactory? Were there any unintended side effects? What will you do in the future for this pest situation? Understanding the effectiveness of the IPM program allows the site manager to make modifications to the IPM plan prior to pests reaching the action threshold and requiring action again.Notes1. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Pesticides and Food What Integrated Pest Management Means.2. http//www.umass.edu/umext/ipm/publications/guidelines/index.html.3. Bennett, Et Al., Trumans Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 6th edition, page 10, Purdue University/Questex Press, 2005.4. Purdue University Turf Pest Management Correspondence Course, Introduction, 20065. http//www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/biocontrol/6. http//www.hort.uconn.edu/ipm/veg/htms/ecbtrich.htm7. http//pinellas.ifas.ufl.edu/green_pros/ipm_basics.shtml8. http//www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/biocontrol/Inundative_release.htm9. http//www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/biocontrol/Inoculative_release_.htm10. Bennett, Et Al., Trumans Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 6th edition, page 12, Purdue University/Questex Press, 2005.References* Pests of Landscape Trees and Shrubs An Integrated Pest Management Guide.Steve H. Dreistadt, bloody shame Louise Flint, et al., ANR Publications, University of California, Oakland, California, 1994. 328pp, paper, photos, reference tables, diagrams.* Bennett, Gary W., Ph.d., Owens, John M., Ph.d., Corrigan, Robert M, Ph.d. Trumans Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 6th Edition, pages 10, 11, 12, Purdue University, Questex, 2005. * Jahn, GC, PG Cox., E Rubia-Sanchez, and M Cohen 2001. The quest for connections developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management. pp. 413-430, In S. Peng and B. Hardy eds. Rice Research for Food Security and Poverty Alleviation. Proceeding the International Rice Research Conference, 31 manifest 3 April 2000, Los Baos, Philippines. Los Baos (Philippines) International Rice Research Institute. 692 p.* Jahn, GC, B. Khiev, C Pol, N. Chhorn and V Preap 2001. Sustainable pest management for rice in Cambodia. In P. Cox and R Chhay eds. The Impact of Agricultural Research for Development in Southeast Asia Proceedings of an International Conference held at the Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 24-26 Oct. 2000, Phnom Penh (Cambodia) CARDI.* Jahn, GC, JA Litsinger, Y Chen and A Barrion. 2007. Integrated Pest Management of Rice Ecological Concepts. In Ecologically Based Integrated Pest Management (eds. O. Koul and G.W. C uperus). CAB International Pp. 315-366.* Kogan, M 1998. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENTHistorical Perspectives and Contemporary Developments, Annual Review of Entomology Vol. 43 243-270 (Volume publication date January 1998) (doi10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.243)* Nonveiller, Guido 1984. class comment et illustr des insectes du Cameroun dintrt agricole (apparitions, rpartition, importance) / University of Belgrade/Institut pour la protection des plantes* US Environmental Protection Ag

Cognitive Development and Language Development

cognitive Development and diction DevelopmentWhat berths do record and kick upstairs present in youngsterrens actors line culture?Within this essay I am going to be looking at whether I have in mind, nature or promote has the greatest impact on human forgement, referring to cognitive development and language development. By looking at what different theorizers from the human development field have disc all overed, I depart sire to the conclusion whether nature or nurture wins this manage. I bequeath start finish up by explaining some of the key terms that I will be using, making it easier for myself to reference back to when needed. I will so move onto my first argona of human development, which is cognitive development, and discuss the nature/nativist theories and the nurture/empiricist theories. By talk of the town about a few different key issues, I will because focus on wholeness main(prenominal) theorist for each. Then, moving on to the second ara of huma n development language development, I will do the same thing again. By starting off looking at the different nativist theories, and then focusing on one main theorist, and then looking into the empiricist theories, and focusing on one main theorist. After having looked at all the different views I will be adequate to conclude on whether I think nature or nurture has the greatest impact on human development.Some of the key terms which will assist me in this essay are acquaintance is basically the kind activities that are associated with thinking, knowing and remembering any ideas and horizons that a person has, or memories that are stored are all different types of cognitive processes. Reading and learning is alike a type of cognition.Development burn down either be qualitative or quantitative. It can be qualitative in the sense that you cant invoice the change, but the change is still notice equal. You can develop quantitatively by an increase in height or weight etc. Patter ns of change over time which begin at conception and continue throughout the life span (Keenan, 2006).Cognitive Developmental system, which consists of many different theories, but I will start off by referring to Piagets Cognitive Development Theory. In Piagets theory of cognitive development, is a award theory which consists of different stages of development. Within each stage of development, kidren are put before challenging occurrences which they must then deal with and overcome through their own abilities. After completing the challenge the child is then able to move on to the next stage of cognitive development.Learningis when there is a change in deportment or friendship which has demonstrable from anterior experiences or training. The learning process could be innate, meaning that we are born with the knowledge, or it has been obtained through daily life. Hence, any knowledge or behaviour that we are now in hold of that we were not born with, was somehow learned. Th is has been studied by psychologists in many demeanors, Pavlov with his associative learning he examined the salivation of dogs in reception to meat powder to Skinner with his living theory, that a learner will only repeat the desired behaviour if the behaviour is followed by positive reinforcement rats press a lever in the quest of gaining some kind of reward.Language is something that we use in everyday lives. Theoretically, language is a formal schema of communication which involves a combination of words and/or symbols, whether written or spoken. It is not necessary for another organism to comprehend the language, for it to actually be a language just that it meets the description given.Language Development is a process which starts early in human life, that begins when a person starts to pay back language by learning as it is spoken or by mimicking the person. By four months of age, babies are able to read lips and distinguish between different speech sounds. Language usua lly starts off as meaningless words by simply recalling what others are saying, but as a child grows, the words begin to acquire meaning creating connections between words being formed. As a person gets older, new meanings and new associations are created and vocabulary increases as more words are learned.Nature is the genetics you receive, its something you have ever since you were born, e.g. eye colour. It is something that cannot be influenced by others.Nurture is the effect that the people in your life have on you, and the milieu you are in. It is things that have influenced you whilst growing up, e.g. the media or values taught by your parents.Nature-Nurture is cognise to be one of the longest running debates whether its or genes (nature) or our experiences (nurture) that make us who we are? E.g. If a person commits a violent crime, did they do so because of their genetic makeup (they are genetically pre-wired to be violent) or because of their experiences (e.g., growing up i n an impoverished area, not getting a good education, no parental guidance or some other experience)? This is the nature-nurture debate.Child development is a discipline which aims to identify, to describe and to predict patterns in childrens growth where growth includes intellectual (or cognitive), linguistic, physical, favorable, behavioural and emotional development. (Smidt, 2006), (ARU, 2009)The key theories that are mainly acknowledged within cognitive development include The Stage Theory, carried out by Piaget (nativist), and Scaffolding by Bruner (empiricist). Piaget (1896-1980) researched into childrens learning and conceived that they go through stages and learn in sequences when growing up. He thought that children were active learners and that they used their past experiences as their knowledge for the world and how to deal with previously experienced situations. Piagets theory was first published in 1952, which came from his observation of children, including his own, whom he observed in a natural environment. He imagined that a childs knowledge was composed of schemas knowledge which is used to organise previous experiences, which is referred back to when seek to comprehend new ones. Piagets theory states that cognitive development occurs in four stages, in which when they begin to take place, they follow the same order you are only able to move onto the next stage once the previous stage has been completed. The four stages areResearchers have found that the advanced memory skills in children, mainly in the Formal Operational Stage, are due to memorisation techniques, such as repeating things in hope of memorising them, or categorising them, making it easier to pick out the entropy in future. Vygotsky (1978) states Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applie s equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher(prenominal) functions originate as actual relationships between individuals. His theories were a mix of some(prenominal) nativist and empiricist views. One of Vygotskys central ideas was the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which is the difference between the level of potential development and the actual development in a child. He emphasised how social interaction was vital for development from the beginning of their lives. He declared that before enough internal, a function must go through a social stage when developing. Therefore, it is initially social, and then becomes an internal function which is known as internalisation (Vygotsky, 1962).The empiricist views would include Vygotskys theory on the component of culture and social interaction. He stated that socio-cultural environment was important for cognitive development. Being able to experience different contexts create s different forms of development cognitive processes such as thoughts and your imagination develop through social interaction. The matter of social interaction relates back to ZPD, as communicating with other people develops your knowledge further. Bruner (1915- ) developed further on Vygotskys early work, and came up with Scaffolding, which was outlining how an adult assists a child in learning. Adults can aid children to move from where they are, to where they want to go. This is only possible if the child is interested in the situation initially, then they are able to be supported by the adult to further their learning. This is demonstrated in 5 stages, shown in the table below (ARU, 2009)When an adult is assisting a child they are using previous experiences as their knowledge to do so. This is known as the Socio-Cognitive Stage Theory, in which recall is processed in 3 ways. The Enactive Mode, is when things are represented by doing them, the process used to get to the end produ ct. The Iconic Mode is when children are further to record their experiences, therefore making them more memorable. Lastly, the Symbolic Mode, which is where children use symbols and codes to represent and specify the meaning of what they are trying to represent. E.g. writing the number 5 sooner of writing five its a symbol representing the number. Skinner (1905-1990) is another example, who has practiced the importance of empirical learning in development. According to him, learning is characterised by the way a person processes their behaviour, which is then shaped into an experience. He doesnt completely eliminate the role of innate factors, but does argue that the external environment has a higher influence on development. Skinner suggested that if a person is positively reinforced (rewarded) for carrying out a certain action, they are more likely to repeat it again and recall it as a good experience. If a child was to be negatively reinforced (punished) they are highly likely not to repeat the behaviour again as they dont want to be punished, therefore remembering it as a bad experience.I deliberate that a person has to experience an answer physically for them to be able to remember it better and recall it. Therefore, the environment plays a crucial role in cognitive development as it gives you knowledge of whether something is right or wrong, and then this experience is moved into the innate as a memory. Like Skinner suggested, before carrying out an action the child will remember the last time they carried it out, how they had approached the task set ahead of them then, what they have learnt since then, and how they can improve on it now with their recent learning hence the social interaction has led the child to think back using their innate memory. Cognitive development requires some(prenominal) nativist and empiricist approaches to help a child develop their learning.The key theories that are mainly acknowledged within language development inclu de Chomskys Language Acquisition Device, Skinners backing and Banduras Social Learning Theory (SLT). The nativist theory deals with language being an innate feature of a child. Chomsky (1928- ) promotes this theory and came up with his own Language Acquisition Device (LAD). He declared that the top executive to learn language is inborn, suggesting that nature is more important than nurture. His work contributed to the thought that childrens language development is more complex than what is declared by behaviourists, who believe that children can learn language by being rewarded for imitating. However, Chomskys theory does not take into account the influence that cognition and language have on each others development. Nativists believe that if children surrounded by poverty, and brought up in a poverty constricted environment, children are still learning to speak due to their language acquisition device. This leads them to believe that the study of learning focuses on events that c an be observed and measured.Empiricist views of Skinner and Watson, shows that they believed that children come into this world as a blank slate. Therefore, meaning that when a child is born, they have no knowledge at all, and are incapable of doing or knowing anything. They believe that this theory applies to all species. Behaviourist views like this suggest that the role of the environment is vital, and that the process of learning is only successful if there has been a change in behaviour. Moving onto Banduras (1924- ) Social Learning Theory, which suggests people learn from one another by observing their actions and imitating them. This theory is known to be a link between nativist and empiricist views as nativist learning is needed when trying to memorise what you are seeing and embarking on motivation. Most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action (Bandura). The conditions which are necessary for this model to take place include, Attention, there are various points which will either increase or decrease the amount of attention you are paying to a situation. This could relate back to Skinner and his reinforcing stimulus theory. Retention, being the second condition, is remembering what you were paying attention to. This can be remembered in different ways such as, images, symbols, coding, or just rehearsing. Reproduction, is being able to reproduce the image, which then leads to Motivation, which occurs when you have a good reason to imitate the previous sequence. Other reasons for this motivation may be incentives, or the speculation compel by the reinforcement theory. Skinner suggested that the associations between a stimuli and the response could explain the behaviour and interaction of a being. He tried to apply his Operant teach to the way language is learnt. The probability of a verbal response was contingent on four things reinforcement, stimulus control, deprivation, and aversive stimulation. The interaction of these things in a childs environment would lead to particular associations, the basis of all language (Skinner 1957).I believe that nurture, is a more effective form of language development. This is because language is a inert process you need to go through various stages of development until you are at a level of individual learning. By watching what an adult is doing, at a young age you observe them and imitate them. Its like watching a carer and a baby having a conversation CARER Hello, what are you doing?BABY (babbles)When talking to the baby, theyll try and converse back, and as they grow older they learn words and their meanings and are able to create sentences. This all comes from some form of social interaction. The nature side of things is important in this matter too as once a child has learnt a word, it needs to be stored and recalle d again when needed to. Therefore, both nature and nurture work together in an effort to create language development.To conclude overall, I believe that both nature and nurture play a vital role in the development of cognitive and language development. The nurture may come first at times to experience the situation or process, which you then will remember and will store it, and then when needed to use again the experience becomes innate and is remembered through the cognition of your brain, becoming your nature. There are many studies that have been carried out to prove that nurture is more vital in the development of these processes, but from my point of view, I dont think there is as much information available on the nature side of things as there is on nurture. There are well known nature theorists out known, taking Piaget for example, but nature theories need to be backed up more strongly with more research being carried out. Reinforcement plays a big role in no matter what you do, if you are negatively reinforced towards a situation, you are likely to not want to go through it again and put that experience at the back of your mind but still have it in your memory for you to be reminded to not act as the scenario. The nature-nurture debate has been studied over for many years, and will probably continue to be for many more years to come but this is strong debate which I believe works together as a pair, and the one needs the other for it to be able to function appropriately.REFERENCEShttp//www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.phpwww.learning-theories.com/classical-conditioning-pavlov.htmlhttp//www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/2_learntch/theories.htmlhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_development(2009). Theory of Cognitive Development. Available http//www.answers.com/topic/cognitive-development. Last accessed 13 December 2009.(2008). Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget). Available http//www.learning-theories.com/piagets-stage-theory-of-cognitive -development.html. Last accessed 13 December 2009.(2004). Cognitive Development In Children. Available http//allpsych.com/psychology101/development.html. Last accessed 13 December 2009.Verenikina,A. Understanding Scaffolding and the ZPD in Educational Research. Available http//www.aare.edu.au/03pap/ver03682.pdf. Last accessed 13 December 2009.Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition Vygotskian Perspectives. Cambridge University Press.The Nativist Theory. Available http//language11.tripod.com/id9.html. Last accessed 13 December 2009.(2009). Developing language for life. Available http//www.literacytrust.org.uk/talktoyourbaby/theories.html. Last accessed 13 December 2009.(2009). Nature Versus Nurture. Available http//education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1913/Developmental-Theory.html. Last accessed 13 December 2009.Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York General Learning Press.(2008). Social Learning Theory (Bandura). Available http//www.learning-theori es.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html. Last accessed 13 December 2009.Oates,J Grayson,A. 2004. Cognitive and language development in children. Open University BlackwellBF Skinner, Behavioralism, Language Behavior. Available http//www3.niu.edu/acad/psych/Millis/History/2003/cogrev_skinner.htm. Last accessed 14 December 2009.

Human Resource Planning and Development: Tesco

humane vision Planning and Development TescoIntroduction of TescoJack Cohen founded Tesco in 1919 when he began to sell surplus groceries from a stall in the east end on capital of the United Kingdom. The Tesco brand first appeared in 1924. Jack Cohen make refreshing label using the first common chord letters of suppliers name (TES) and the first tow letter of his surname (Co), contour lineing the word TESCO. The first Tesco store was opened in 1992 in Burnt oak, Edgware, Middlesex. Tesco was floated in London stock exchange in 1947 as Tesco Stores (Holding) Limited. The first self-importance service store opened in St. Albans in 1951 and the first supermarket in Maldon in 1956.Tesco is virtuoso of the worlds leading international retailers. Nowadays it deals in different sectors like telecom, online services, clothing, insurance, electronics, fuel etc, but the principal activity of the Tesco group is food retailing and it has over 2,500 stores worldwide.Tesco is semipublic gi veed come with its major shareholders as of 2004 were 1Barclays Global Investors (3.82%)Legal and general (2.79%)Schroder investment Mgt Ltd (2.87%)State street global Advisors (2.73%)Axa Investment Manager (2.63%)Thread desirele Investments (2.63%)Scottish windows (2.08%)M G Investment Mgt Ltd (1.99%)Morley fund Management (1.88%)USB Global AssetCompany ProfileIt is one of the biggest retailer companies in the world which has 702 stores in UK and employee 240,000 tribe. It originally caters in food but expanded it scope of services to clothing, finance services, electronic, etc. Company strategy is to focussing on long term business. Tesco start self service supermarket in US in 1930s. After 20 coordinates Tesco has become a familiar name not only for groceries but alike for fresh food, clothing and hundreds of household cheeseparings in 1940s. Tesco has built its 100th superstore by 1985 and in 1987. By 1991 the success of its petrol filling station earned for the company Britishs biggest independent petrol retailer. It broke new level in food retailer in 1995 the first node loyalty card, which come toer benefit to official customer and otherwise different kinds of offers was given to customer like Tesco Baby club for new parents.Tesco acquire the HIT chain of hypermarkets in Poland in July 2002. By the end of 2002/2003 Tesco had 45 percent of its space overseas. Tesco has essential various kinds of Tesco stores like Tesco Extra, Metro Tesco, and Tesco Express. The grocery store is to a fault offer club card for the customer from which a significant 80% of the sales are transacted.after certain points Tesco gives voucher to the customer to met with a similar success as over a billion vouchers are already given away. The market share is now 16.2%. Tesco operate 4 store formats in the UK.Introduction to Human Resource ManagementHuman resources are the people that exert for an governance, and Human Resource Management is concerned with how these people are managed. However, the term Human Resource Management (HRM) has come to slopped more than this because people are different from the other resources that work for an organisation. People have melodic themes and feelings, aspirations and ask. The term HRM has thus come to confer with to an climb, which takes into accountThe adopt of constitutionThe need of its peopleDifferent individuals have their own needs and aspirations. HRM at that slipfore involves finding out about the needs and aspirations of individual employees, for example through the appraisal bring and accordingly creating the opportunities deep down the organisation (e.g. through job enlargement) and outside the organisation for employees to improve themselves. HRM therefore relates to both chance of the way in which the organisation interacts with its people, e.g. by providing educational activity and development opportunities, appraisal to find out about individual needs, training and develop ment needs analysis, etc.Three key activities of HRM in TESCOManpower be afterPlanning stave levels requires that an sound judgment of present and future needs of the shaping be compared with present resources and future predicted resources. Appropriate go hence be planned to bring demand and publish into balance. Thus the first footfall is to take a rough sketch of the existing workforce pen (number, skills, ages etc) of existing employees and then audit for 1,3 and 10 years ahead by amendments for normal turnover, planned staff movements, retirements etc in line with the business plan for the jibe time frames. What future demands provide be is only influenced in part by the forecast of the psychenel manager, whose principal(prenominal) t crave whitethorn well be to scrutinize and modify the crude predictions of other managers. Future staff needs will derive fromSales and returnion forecastsThe effects of technological change on task needsVariations in the efficiency, productivity, flexibility of labour as a result of training, work study, faceal change, new motivations, etc.Changes in employment entrustVariation which respond to new legislation, eg. Payroll taxes or their abolition, new health and safety requirementsChanges in government policies.What should emerge from this blue sky gazing is a thought out and logical staffing demand schedule for varying dates in the future which can then be compared with the crude supply schedules. The comparisons will then indicates what steps must be taken to achieve a balance.That in turn will involve the further planning of such enlisting, training, retraining and labour reductions or change in workforce utilization as will bring supply and demand into equilibrium, not just as a one off but as a continuing workforce planning exercise the inputs to which will need constant varying to reflect actual as against predicted ingest on the supply side and changes in production actually achieved as against forec ast on the demand side.Recruitment and selectionThe overall bring forth of the recruitment and selection answer should be to obtain at minimum address the number and quality of employees mandatory to satisfy the human resource needs of Tesco. The trey stages of recruitment and selections areDefining recruitmentsAttracting candidatesSelecting candidatesThe number and categories of people required should be specified in the recruitment programme, which is derived from human resource plan. In addition there will be demands for replacements or for new jobs to be filled, and these demands should be checked to ensure that they are justified. It may be particularly necessary to check on the need for a replacement of the level of type of employee that is specified. These provide the basic information required to draft advertisements, brief agencies or recruitment consultants, and assess candidates. A role profile listing competences skill, educational and experience requirements produce s the job criteria against which candidates will be assessed at the interview of by means of psychological tests.Attracting candidatesAttracting candidates is primarily a matter of identifying, evaluating and using the most appropriate sources of applicants. However in cases where difficulties in attracting or retaining candidates are being met or anticipated, it may be necessary to take on out a preliminary study of the factors that are likely to attract or repel candidates the strengths and weakness of the governing body as an employer.Advertising is the most open-and-shut method of attracting candidates. Tesco basically advertise its vacancy on its web site. This means looking at the alternative sources mentioned above and confirming preferably on the understructure of experience, that they will not do. Consideration should be given as to whether it might be better to use an agency of a selection consultant. When making the choice, refer to the three criteria of cost, speed a nd the likelihood of providing good candidates. The objectives of an advertisement should be to attract attention, create and principal(prenominal)tain interest and stimulate action.Employee MotivationTesco employees are encouraged to ask themselves strategic questions in order to assess their skills and ability to work out. Employee motivation is important for the organisation. It is one of the basic activities compulsory for the smooth running of an organization. To retain good staff and to encourage them to give of their best while at work requires attention to the fiscal and psychological and even physiological rewards offered by the organization as a continuous exercise.Basic financial rewards and conditions of services are determined externally in many occupations but as much as 50 % of the gross pay of manual workers is often the result of local negotiations and details of conditions of services are often more important than the basics. Hence there is scope for financial a nd other motivations to be used at local levels. As staff needs vary will vary with productivity of the workforce so good personnel policies are desirable. The latter can depends uponOther factor but unless the wage packet is accepted as fair and just there will be no motivation.Following are the motivation techniquesCelebrating annual holidays the regular celebration of annual events help form the company culture, the environment you provide for people at work. Tesco gives pay holiday for its employee which will motivate its employee. If the workers are involved in creative work by which they share their ideas and culture with each other which helps keep the culture of an organization well. Tesco provides different kinds of bonuses and voucher to its employee which helps to motivate them.Ranking the workers and giving them the rewards which help employee to spend all their time at work place and company gain good profit from this. Providing benefit, medical treatment and basic requ irement facilities to the workers motivate workers to give good output to an organizationHuman Resource Management Models of TescoThis company has introduced a high commitment pretense which offers training and development to all employees. They have developed their culture through extending their logo every little helps to prove commitment. This organisation was chosen, through their introduction of strategies which has led to an increase in business. This has demonstrated they are a first class provider of training to their employments, and has given opportunity to expand into new markets.The matching ModelThe early HRM model developed by Fombrun emphasizes the interrelatedness and the coherence of human resource heed activities. The human resource management cycle in their model consist of four constituent components Selection, appraisal, development and reward these four human resource activities aim to increase organizational action.RewardsPerformancePerformance ManagementSe lectionHuman Resource DevelopmentThis model also ignores different stakeholder interests, situational factors and the notion of managements strategies choice. The strength of the model however is that it express the coherence of internal HRM polices and the importance of matching internal HRM policies and practices to the organizations external business strategy. The HRM cycle is also a simple model that serves as a pedagogical framework for explaining the nature and significance of key HR practices and the interactions among the factors making up the complex fields of human resource management. As we progress through the book, we will refer to the HRM cycle to explain the relationship of each individual HRM function to other HRM practices.The Harvard model of HRMThe analytical framework of the Harvard model offered by Beet consists of six basic componentsSituational factorsStakeholder interestsHuman resource management policy choicesHR outcomesLong-term consequencesA feedback loop through which the outputs flow directly into the organization and to the stakeholdersThe situational factors influence managements choice of HR strategy. This normative model incorporates workforce characteristics, management philosophy, labour market regulations, societal values and patterns of unionization, and suggests a meshing of both product market and socio-cultural . The framework is based on the belief that the problems of historical personnel management can only be solved when general managers develop a viewpoint of how they wish to see employees involved in and developed by the enterprise, and of what HRM policies and practices may achieve those goals. Without either a central philosophy or a strategic vision- which can be provided only by general manager- HRM is likely to remain a set of independent activities, each guided by its own practice tradition. Beer and his colleagues believed that today many pressures are demanding a broader, more comprehensive and more strateg ic perspective with regard to the organizations human resources. These pressures have created a need for a longer- term perspective in managing people and consideration of people as potential assets rather than merely a variable cost. They were the first to punctuate the HRM tenet that HRM belongs to line managers. They also state that Human resource management involves all management decisions and action that affect the nature of the relationship between the organization and its employees- its human resources. They suggest two characteristic features one is line managers accept more responsibility for ensuring the alignment of competitive policies that govern how personnel activities are developed and implemented in ways that make them more mutually reinforcing.Human Resource Planning and Development for TescoEvery organisation has its own HR planning and development process under consideration. Human resource planning is indeed concerned with broader issues about the employment o f people than the traditional qualitative approaches of workforce planning. approximation of HR PlanningTraining and Development ProgrammeSelection ProcessRecruitment PlanDetermine Job RequirementWork Study solicit forecastingInventory of HR skills (Findings Gaps)Objective of HR PlanningFig The Process of Human Resource PlanningObjectives of Manpower Planning- The persons concerned with hands planning must be clear about goals of manpower planning because once the wrong forecast of future requirement of human resources are made, it may not be possible to rectify the errors in short-run.Inventory of Skills Assessment of demand for operating personnel presents less problems of uncertainty current manpower supply can be adjusted accordingly. But for supervisory and managerial levels projection is complex problem because required talents are not available at a short notice. This will also help in drawing recruitment development plans to meet the needs of certain skills future.Dem and Forecasting A decent forecast of manpower required in future say, after one year, two years so on must be attempted. The factors relevant for manpower forecasting are as follows.(i) Employment Trends Manpower planning committee examine number of employees on pay roll during past 5 year to know trend within each group to determine whether particular group has been stable or unstable.(ii) Replacement Needs if staffs leave the job overdue to death, retirement, resignation termination of employees. It may relate to supervisory, skilled, clerical groups and must be anticipated in advance. In this case the HR planner set a develop plan to replace staff.(iii) Productivity Gain in productivity will also influence requirements of manpower. Planning for productivity has several aspects. The first aspect relates to effective utilisation of manpower. The second aspect relates to installation of more productive tools, equipments. The last aspect relates to matching of skills with req uirements of jobs.(v) Absenteeism Means a situation when a person fails to come for work when he is scheduled to work. Due to absenteeism work get upset leading to overtime work which in turn leads to increased cost of production. The management should go into cause of absenteeism attempt to reduce absentism as far as possible.(vi) Work Study Can be used when it is possible to follow up work measurement to know how long operations should take amount of labour required. This is also known as workload analysis.Job Requirements Job assessment is done to find out the requirements of the worker, like if employee needs any help from the managerial side, if they need any type of benefits and support from other. If they need to transfer form one department to another, whether the number of staff is low or high and so on.Employment Plans This phase deals with planning how organisation can obtain required number of right type of personnel as reflected by personnel forecasts.Training D evelopment Programme Training is essential not only for new employees but also for old employees for improving their performance. Similarly executive development programmes have to be devised for development of managerial personnel. The talent of employees are not full productive without a systematic programme of training development.Appraisal of Manpower Planning After training programmes have been implemented, an appraisal must be made of effectiveness of manpower planning. Deficiencies in programs should be pointed out catalogue of manpower inventory should be updated periodically. Connective actions should also be taken whenever it is necessary to attain deficiencies in manpower planning.Evaluation of HRM planning and development methods of TescoAccording to the method described is one of the best methods for HR planning and development method. By spare-time activity the above method an HR department of an organization is good at organizing the manpower. It covers the meth ods form the beginning of the recruitment process to management level. It first evaluate whether the employee is needed or not then after is set up a plan for the recruitment process and goes on to the recruitment process. After that it analyse whether employee needs any training, transfer, motivation etc. So this method is effective development method.Performance AppraisalTesco measures the abilities of its employees to check it has the correct skills for the future. After reviewing and dole outer discussion if staffs need training then they can apply for training. Tesco mainly focus on three things Customer, working with other and own behaviour. This will help to select the leader. last is taken for giving training or promoting the staff according to the performance audit of the employee.In this step job performance of an employee is evaluated typically by the synonymic manager or supervisor. A performance appraisal is a part of a guiding and managing career development. It is the process of analysing, obtaining and recording information about the congenator worth of an employee to the organization. It is also the judgement of an employees performance in a job based on considerations other then productivity alone.There is the long process of evaluating the performance of an employees in Tesco. Managerial team prepare an appraisal sheet where individual employee fills in the form in monthly basis. Which includes the feedback on performance of the employee and then manager analyse the sheet collected from different employee and identify whether training is needed and document the criteria used to allocate organizational reward. It also analyse the ain evaluation and decide whether to improve salary, promotion, disciplinary action, bonus etc. It also provides opportunity for organization to diagnosis and develops in facility provided to the communication facilities between employee and administration. Its main aim is to provide performance through counsell ing, coaching and development of organization.Methods of Performance AppraisalA common approach to assessing performance is to use a numerical or scalar rating system whereby managers are asked to score an individual against a number of objectives. In some companies, employees receive assessment from their manager, subordinates and customers while also performing a self assessment.Establishing performance cadences setting up of the stanandards which will be used to as the base to compare the actual performance of the employees. This step requires setting the criteria to judge the peroformance of the employee as succesful or unsuccesful and the degees of theri comtrubution to the organizational goal and objectives. The standards set should be clear, easily understandable and in measurable terms. In case the performance of the employee cannot mesasured, great care should be taken to describe the standards.Establishing performance standardsCommunicating standards and expectationsMeas uring the actual performanceComparing with standardsDiscussing ResultsDecision making-taking corrective actionsCommunicating the standards formerly set, it is the responsibility of the management to communicate the standards to all the employees of the organization. The employees should be informed and the standards should be clearly expained. This will help them to understand their roles and to know what exactly is expected form them. The standards should also be communicated to the appraisers or the evaluators and if required, the standards can also be modified at this stage itself according to the relevant feedback from the employees or the evaluators.Measuring the aperformance it is difficult to measur the work done by the employees during the specified period of time. It is a continuous process which involves monitoring the performance throught the year. This stage requires the careful selection of the appropriate techniques of measurement, taking care that personal bias does not affect the outcome of the process and providing assistance rather than interfaceing in an employees work.Comparing the actula with in demand(p) performance the comparision tells the deviations in the performance of teh employees from the standard set. The result can show the actual performance being more than the desired performance or the actual performance being less than the desired performance depiciting a negative deviation in the organizational perofrmane. It includes recalling, evaluating and analysis of data related to the employees performance.The result of the appraisal is communicated and discussed with the employees on one to one basis. The focus of this discussion is on communication and listening. The results, the problems and the possible solutions are discussed with tha aim of problem solving and reaching conssensus. The feedback should be given with a positive attitude as this can have an effect on the employees future performance. The pressure of teh metting s hould be to solve the problem faced and motivate the employees to perform better.The last step of the process is to take decisions which can be taken either to improve the performance of the employees, takes the required corrctive actions, or the related HR decisions lile rewards, promotions, demotions, transfers etc.ConclusionTescois a succesful organization in UK. They have incresase market share and retails unit over the last five year. Their model of HR is strong and highly practiced and highly commited. Their main focus on the training issues and also on vital to the success of the organisation, without commitment, it would amount to a wsate of resources. The entire organisation is involven in training and is offered to all levels within the organisation.Give good training and development of its employees is necessary for Tesco to continue its work and sustain in the world as a world leading retailer. It uses same approach with both existing and new employees. This ensure the s taff of this comapay have right skills to provide a strong base to support future growth of the business.

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Essay -- essays research papers

One of the more significant or essential theorys in my opinion is communication. Communication, the exchange of information is a key concept because when information is shared in a constructive manner there is an opportunity for understanding and even acceptance in most cases. Communication develops a sense of trust and portrays a gesture of sensitivity which usually results in a more positive reaction and cooperation. Open communication is especially important when transition is involved. Communication will enable a smoother transition because all will be aware of the changes taking place and with some bill whitethorn welcome the change due to the greater understanding the communication may have provided. When an organization withholds information it creates havoc and mistrust amongst the members of that organization. Communication may not always be negative it is just as important to communicate when the information is that of a positive nature.Organizational effectiveness and efficiency relies on each member of the organizations participation or contribution. An organization must identify what their goals and strategy are and recognize what their strengths and weakness are. They must modify their methods and practices to greater their strengths and evaluate the theater of operationss or factors that are preventing or weakening their productivity and overall progress and restructure or eliminate to achieve the organizations goals. This is one area where organizational learning...

Describe the process by which genes and environment operate together to

Describe the process by which genes and environment operate together to influence development. Discuss the consequence of these processes for our understanding of child development.This essay will give a detailed account of the process by which genes and the environment operate together to influence development. face at Physical development and Language development and the perspectives of Natavism, Behaviourism. Constructivism and Social Constructivism it will explain the role of these perspectives in understanding child development. It is argued that the genetic blueprint flush toilet interact with the environment to encourage development. The process of genes and environment working together is often referred to as epigenetics and shows how environmental factors which gutter affect a parent can change the types of genes passed onto their children.Looking at Physical using it can be seen if the process of genes and environment operating together influence development. As the e nvironment is perpetu on the wholey changing humankind needs to have changeable characteristics, some of which are physical, this is known as Developmental Plasticity. Piaget studied water snails and found that require of the snails shell varied depending on its habitat. Pond snails had longer shells than lake snails who had shorter shells to suit the water turbulence. Suggesting that cells have the properties to change and become self-organising, cells can change the way they are maturation in response to environmental stimuli. It is argued that genes can be switched on or off in response to this environmental stimuli and can alter the characteristics they produce.Piaget called this process Epigenetic Development, Epigenetic information is constantly being acquired throughout development, giving the environment an officious role in influencing development. The environment is shaping information in our genes and changing our physical development. Humankind standing on two legs and walking was a response to environmental changes. This has had a significant effect on our genetic makeup from the bring of our pelvis to the size of our skull. Epigenetic systems can nevertheless change things during the period of maturation and once a characteristic is adapted it can not change back. Richardson, 1994, argues in relation to child developmen... ...agreed with Piaget as his theory ignored the social environment. Vygotsky argued society was essential to child development as it allowed child interaction with others. He argued that speech is acquired by the child internalizing social interactions. A child learns from another person and after interactions are repeated several times the child internalizes it. Vygotsky argued this can only be achieved with another person and carried out in the childs zone of proximal development. Both Vygotsky and Piaget felt a child was active in the their own development. Vygotsky argues environment and its interactions shape the child, in contrast Piagets theory is more biologically linked.In conclusion it can be seen from looking at physical development and language development that genes and the environment operate together to influence development. In relation to child development the gene-environment perspective is not the only one to be considered. Gene only perspectives, Environment only perspectives and the Transactional model which sees the child as actively shaping its own development all play important roles and help us to understand the process of child development.