A Discussion of Assessment and Feedback Issues Essay Example for Free

A Discussion of Assessment and Feedback Issues Essay A discussion of assessment and feedback issues Assessment is an important part of teaching and learning, the most obvious reason for carrying out assessment is to evaluate the students learning/achievement s and whether the student is heading toward the course of qualification. Teaching within NVQ the criteria is laid out for me as a teacher my role is to prepare the students to observe their performances, question them, and use assessment to make a decision as to whether my learners are competent or capable. I must also to ensure that the assessment meets the criteria and objectives of the NVQ qualification. We as the teachers/assessors want to know whether learning outcomes have been achieved, or if the student is of a standard required to pass and achieve the grade /qualification. It also helps me as the tutor up most to help determine the development the student needs during the course. Assessment is also a away to provide information on individual teacher or the institution. For example; are the teaching methods affective, are the learning objectives appropriate- are they too easy or to difficult. Assessment within my teaching domain comprises of different components, performances in the work places, the use of realistic working environment. With NVQ teaching we have specific criteria that must be covered and include skills as well as knowledge, we the assessors have the decision as to how and where the assessment takes place. NVQ level 1-2-3 hairdressing comprises of units which must be cover die, Level 3 consists of 53 credits minimum split into mandatory units -48 credits and optional unit of which is 6 credits to pass and obtain the qualification. Following VTCT/HABIA critia guide lines and assessment work book. VTCT/HABIA strongly advocates a holistic approach for assessment of learners. Examples include using one assessment method to gather evidence for a number of criteria integrating knowledge into practical observation (i. e. through oral or evidenced on analysis sheets i. e. consultation forms). I myself as a teacher of hair and beauty believe in Habia and VTCT Assessment learning and teaching strategies I believe in engaging and exciting the learner whether it means I need to change the way I assess or how I bring my knowledge forward for learners to understand and help them complete their course. I measure the achievements against the standards set out. One of the advantages of NVQs is that the whole area to be tested is set out from the start. NVQ assessment is usually internal or external or a combination of the two. Internal assessment means myself is responsible for devising and marking assessments be it using case study’s which also help develop functional/key skills, observation ,oral ,informal,ect. These then tend to be verified by the centre internal verifier. I myself am required to set work that will improve practical skills knowledge and understanding. It’s my responsibility to guide learners on the evidence that is needed to be gathered to satisfy assessment. Within my course criteria (NVQ) we use formative and summative assessment as the main hold of the course. Unlike summative assessment which relates to assessment of learning, feedback relates to assessment for learning. Assessment 1998: Torrance and Pryor 1998) which helps the learners progress (Black and William We use formative assessment as formal or informal. For assessment to function formatively, the results have to be used to adjust teaching and learning. † (Black and William 1998: pp. -16) With formative assessment we use a range of activitys, case studies, multiple choice test, practical test, projects, questioning alone or within a group. To help students understand the frame work and what is needed we use in NVQ or within my institution mile stones of 13 weeks covering formative summative and mandatory test assessment. I strongly believe in formative a ssessment for the students and me the teacher for my own evaluation as well as theses; it contributes to the learner’s progress provided guidance on how to bridge the gaps to achieve the desired results, we use ILPS to also help within this process. ILPs individual learning plans, we use these to encourage the students also for means of developing their own targets and to motivate and encourage the students learning development. These documents are updated by learner and teacher throughout the course and are used as part of the formal course assessment. Summative assessment is used for grading or within my teaching domain it’s a simple pass or fail. As stated in (Teaching skills in the further and adult education 3rd addition David Minton p 288) progression and new technology. There is no reason why a teaching session in a hairdressing salon should not be video-taped or photo graphed and presented with by the teacher to explain whys/he did what, what happened, what was observed in a group or individual work. It’s a valuable tool for evaluation as well as valid evidence. It can be shared with mentor or other tutor to compare and evaluate work, to review Atcual teaching session also and assessment of students. I myself have used this and found it a good tool to be used. In regards to questions and feed back during assessment, It’s important to be specific on what can be improved and how. Effective feedback tells the student what they have achieved and where they need to improve. Questioning is used not only as a pedagogical tool but also as a deliberate way for myself the teacher to find out what knowledge and understanding the leaner’s have gained, also to helps myself the teacher see how successful my teaching has been and what areas need to be improved . Questioning is fundamental to effective teaching and learning. As stated by ( Fisher amp; Frey 2007) Checking for understanding through questioning should not be thought as a simple two step process but rather as a complex progression as the teacher formulates and then listens to the responses of the learners, IE making them from easy to hard and simplifying them for students own level of learning. Self and peer assessment can also be beneficial in feedback and evaluation on own and peers works. As state many academic teachers still tend to retain all ownership and power in the assessment process (Dorothy spiller teaching development wahonga Feb 2012 assessment matters). Self assessment is used during formative assessment which students reflects and evaluates their own work. Seeing their strengths weaknesses and areas they feel they need to improve, helps set self goals becoming more motivated. Self assessment within my teaching area requires the student to fill out self assessment feedback forms in relation to a practical activities carried out, this help them self –evaluate their work strengths and weaknesses. â€Å"SELF ASSESMENT WITH ITS EMPHASIS ON STUDENT RESPONAIBITIY AND MAKING JUDGMENT IS NECESSARY SKILL FOR LIFE LONG LEARNING â€Å"(Bond, 1995, P. 11,). In the3 same contexts Peer feedback can also be beneficial to individuals or groups of students who are keen to experiment and use new ideas. Peers assessment involving students giving feedback on peers work can help students make sense of gaps in their own work. I see self and peer assessment beneficial where certain points are present. Designed to enhance learning ,involving learners in judging own work, help improve and motivated owns mind and work . Boud, D (1995). Enhancing learning through self-assesment. London:Koger page. Boud, (1995 P. 11. ). (Black and William 1998: pp. 5-16) Douglas Fisheramp; Nancy Frey 2007 www. reading,org questioning. (Teaching skills in the further and adult education 3rd addition David Minton p 288)

Sustainable competitive advantage

Sustainable competitive advantage 1. Introduction to the Topic: Over the years, the understanding of how a firm can attain and maintain sustainable competitive advantage is major area of research in the field of management. Sustainable competitive advantage is an edge a firm enjoy over its competitors by offering superior values to customer that result in superior profit and growth. Building on these underlined assumption this dissertation the link between a firms success and the competitive advantage. The paper examine the role human resource strategies that leads an organization to enjoy competitive advantage that are sustainable, non-imitable, substantial and that adds superior values to the organization by providing opportunities to the organization to reap the benefits of super profit and market growth. An organisation is regarded as a unified organism that constantly learns and adopts to find better ways of doing its business processes in response to the dynamic environment it faces. Human resource management is a critical area of concern in today dynamic business environment, due to increased competition. It now more difficult to hire and retain highly qualified associates as the growth and profitability of the organization depends on how well the organization managed it human resources. According to Newman and Hodgetts, â€Å"human resource management is the process by which organization ensure the effective use of their associates in the pursuit of both organizational and individual goals† (Newman Hodgetts, 2005). In this paper efforts are made to analyze the varied human resource functions that an organization perform in pursuits of its goals and missions, and how these efforts might lead an organization to competitive advantage, as the success or failure of the organi sation depends on how best the organisation performs its functions as compared to a competitor (Competitive Advantage). In fact the long-term survival of the organisation depends on how best the HR department of the organisation performs its various functions that leads towards creating a competitive advantage over its rivals and how it sustains it. 2. Literature Review: Coff argues that human capital is the key to sustainable advantage because of causal ambiguity and systematic information creating them incomparable (Coff, 1994). According to Boselie and Paauwe (2004), top performing firms has HR professionals who have the main input in the strategic planning. These professionals make possible the change management, shape and manage organisation wide culture, contribute to strategic level decisions, and create market led connectivity of the business process (Boselie Paauwe, 2004). Researchers in the field of strategic HR have emphasised that human resource practices result in superior organisational performance and create sources for continued competitive advantages (Wright, Dunford, Snell, 2001). As the world has become a global village, competing in todays confused environment have posed additional challenges to the HR function in creating the anticipated value to shape and uphold competitive advantages. For effective functioning, HR executives must possess the necessary competencies. That is the possession of HR knowhow which comes from knowing the concepts, communication skills, judgment, research, and practices ofHR (Brockbank, Ulrich, Beatty, 1999) Du Plessis states that HR can play a vital role in the future of an organisation by enacting organisational change to get competitive advantage (Plessis, 2007). He is also of the opinion that resistance to change can serve as an obstacle for successful execution of planned changes, as it encompasses behaviours that may slow down or even terminate a planned organisational change. If the organisation uses an appropriate HR strategy during the period of change, an employee may feel that he is being treated and looked after by the organisation. If such sort of feelings arouse in employees it can change the employees attitude and their resistance towards the planned change. Peters and Waterman in their book â€Å"In search of excellence† says that all the excellent organisations that they have surveyed made efficient use of their HR, by employing sound HR strategies (Peter Waterman, 1982). According to Losey technology is advancing so rapidly that it is forcing organisations to c hange their strategies, in respect to product mix and the way HR is organized and delivered (Losey, 2005). 3. Overview of the Organization: Crossroads Inc. has been formed as a result of merger between Tradco and Hardpharm is a pharmaceutical company that is dedicated to the productions and marketing of quality pharmaceutical products. The merger that we have just is the largest transformation in the history of the organization and provides us with a platform, in terms of capital and other resources, to compete at a higher level. Crossroads Inc. is a medium-sized organisation, with 1,500 workers employed at three sites: one in Scotland, County Durham, and Kent. Crossroads Inc. develops and produces medicines for the global market in competition with industry giants such as Bosch, Pfizer, Lilly, gsk etc. 4. HR Planning Forecasting Planning forecasting in the modern age is a matter of life death for organizations of modern age. The same is true for pharmaceuticals industry. Each every consecutive day new research product is developed, deployed for trails testing. All these effort require skilful, trained and experienced workforce. It is for this reason organization plan and forecast for human resource so as to remain competitive. The HR manager of Crossroads Inc should use the planning forecasting procedures to cope with human resource requirement. The propose HR planning process for Crossroads Inco has been depicted Crossroad Inc can use the process for both short-term as well as long-term basis. Crossroad Inc should continuously monitor the availability of skill workers. For this purpose Crossroad Inc should scan internal environment to find out suitable employee and promote to fill the vacancy, if there are no such employees available, then HR Department should scan external environment for skilled and experienced employees. Once the internal environment along with external environment is scanned, a draft forecast should be prepared. 5. Recruitment and Selection: Once the forecast is developed and approved by the top management, the HR department of Crossroads Inc should start recruitment and selection process to fill the vacancies. Like all good plans, HR Manager of Crossroad Inc should builds employment plans on premises basic assumptions for employment requirement by forecasting three things: The supply of inside candidates; Personnel needs; The supply of outside candidates according to their company requirements. The HR department should first check that either there is any job placement or company is expanding their business so that new jobs are open for new candidates. These issues should be tackled by the HR Manger. If staff is required then the company should try to find them inside the company by upgrading their employees if it not possible then new jobs are created and fill by the outside market. The overall aims of the recruitment and selection process in Crossroad Inc should be to obtain, at minimum cost, the number and quality of employees required to satisfy the needs of staff requirement. The three stages of recruitment and selection in Crossroad Inc should be: Defining requirements: Preparing job descriptions and specifications; deciding terms and conditions of employment; Attracting candidates: Reviewing and evaluating alternative sources of applicants, inside and outside the company, advertising; Selecting candidates: Sifting applications, interviewing, testing, assessing candidates, offering employment, obtaining references; preparing contracts of employment. 6. Training and Development: Training is one of the most important tool any organization using to cope with the rapid change in technology and way of doing business. According to Newman and Hodgetts, â€Å"training is the process of providing associates with specific skills or helping them correct deficiencies in their current performance (Newman Hodgets, 2005). HR department of Crossroads Inc should be responsible for the training and development of existing as well as new coming employees. When a new employee is selected, an orientation of the new employees should be conducted Orientation is basically a one to two hour activity in which the new employees should be informed about the organizational structure, term conditions of employment, the duties of incumbent, the ethical behavioural requirement for the new employee and the so. New or existing employees are trained in HR department via three methods. Employees Handbook Training by concerned department Manager. Training visits to other pharmaceuticals. Tradco tends to largely focus on the needs of the technicians and scientists, and give them right to make decision of employ. However the training programs that HARDPHARM has traditionally used have some problems. In order to reduce the cost, employers are trying to hire labour in with low wage, and then what they have got is low quality staff. Ignoring the development of technology is the main problem. All these people will get together in the future, for the sake of the new company. The period of training should not be specified and should depend on individual circumstances. In some cases it should cover a week and sometimes it should be extended up to 6 months. The process of training should be initiated by first going through the process of training need assessments. The training needs assessment find out the deficiency in the current level of skills the employee possessed and the skills that a job required. For filling up the gape an organization designed its training and development programmes. A planning process is being implemented in which Crossroads Inc can ensure the proper training, awareness and competence development of people. The objective is to provide people with knowledge and skill, which, together with experience, improve their competence and capabilities. Crossroads should establish and maintains a procedure to ensure proper capabilities of personnel working. This includes: Identification of competency needs for personnel performing activities affecting quality. Providing training or take other actions to address identified needs. Evaluating effectiveness of the training provided. Ensuring that employees are aware of the relevance and importance of their activities and how they contribute to the achievement of the quality objectives. Maintaining appropriate records of education, experience, training and qualification. Training needs for Crossroads Inc should be based on the following different methods: Performance Analysis: What tasks the analyst is currently performing? how can the current performance be improved? Is training the best method? Job Task Analysis: What is the best way to do analysis? How can analysis process are broken down into small steps? According to Newman and Hodgetts development is the process of â€Å"providing associates with the experience and attitudes needed for success in the future† (Newman Hodgetts, 2005). The management of Crossroads Inc should constantly monitor the latest development in the field of pharmaceuticals and should design its various development programs accordingly. By this was the HR department will not only transmit the needed knowledge and skills to various employees but will also pave the way for the change management process. Training and development should serve as an investment in the form of human capital for Crossroads Inc. The process will not only facilitate the goal achievement but will also serves as potential source of loyalty across the organization. The new company should understand that the training and development program should be designed by utilizing the latest available methods that has proved its efficiency in the pharmaceutical firm. 7. The Pay and Reward: The pay and reward system of Tradco that was a family-owned business by MacHutton, was largely focus to meet the needs of staff, so the workforce regard as main stakeholders in the company, and to be an important role in the company as well. However, HaedPharm is a company that established as a facility of a group of venture capitalists. This firm put more attention to its various stakeholders including employee and management. They are trying to get maximum return and lowest cost. It is clear that these two organizations are stand on the different side of the point of view of benefit of staff. In the interest of the new company, all of these two should change their pay and reward system. The Crossroads Inc should use the proper remuneration system that is fair to both the company and employee. The organization should variety of remuneration system including monthly salaries, straight commission, combination of salary and commission coupled with monthly, quarterly and annual bonuses. When the organization will have a fair remuneration system it will ensure the proper motivation across the organization and the organization will be able to achieve its goals and objectives effectively and efficiently. 8. Union Relation: Unions serve important purpose by working as a link between the labour and the organization. Generally, trade unions are recognized for collective bargaining purpose, and communication between employer and employee. In Tradco, unions playing a good role between employer and employee, more than 50% workers are members of labour union. In the past 15 years, only one sympathy walk-out happened. On the contrary, unions in HardPharm are not as popular as Tradco. A very small number of employees are members of the unions as the company discourage unionization. After merger the unions will serve an important role in the new firm. Like what happens in former companies, if managers want corporation to manage the affairs of the company in appropriate manner, they have to adjust the relationship between unions and staff. The top management of the newly merged company must admit that union is a necessary and vital component of the organization process, they should talk with unions. If the organization failed to admire the role and relationship between the organization and union, the hostile relationship will serve as impediment for the company development. Contemporary, if there are no unions, or company does not recognize unions, then leaders would not know the needs of staff, they could not adjust the management detail. It will affect the development of company in the long run and the company will not be able to achieve its goals and objectives effectively and efficiently. 9. Career Management: Crossroads Inc should consistently monitor its employees and should proper strategic plan through which it increases the skill level of its employees. To achieve this objectives the company should arrange workshops, seminars, visit of key employees to other pharmaceutical industries training courses which will focus on injecting skills and professionalism into employees. These courses will help Crossroads Inc to improve the skills of their employees so that not only company can get maximum out of them but also employees can enrich their nature of job and life standard as well. Along with these training programs, Crossroads Inc should make their employees fully aware of their job requirements by mean of job descriptions so that they can develop a clear picture about at what are necessary requirement of their job and want are not. Indirectly the promotions, transfer to other department also plays a key role in employees job satisfaction. 10. Performance Appraisal: Employees job performance is an important issue for all employers. A performance management system consists of the processes used to identify, encourage, measure, evaluate, improve, and reward employee performance at work. Every functional department of Crossroads Inc should be responsible for carrying out and preparing its performance appraisal report. However these reports must be submitted to HR Department. The performance appraisal system in the company will help the organization to better focus its efforts on the attainment of the organizational goals and objectives by giving timely feedback regarding an individual employee that how best he is going to achieve his objectives. This will also help him to rectify his shortcoming. Moreover the use of appropriate performance appraisal system that is just, equitable and timely serve as a motivating factors and one of the vital component of the successful organization. 11. Conclusion: The Crossroad Inc is taking turning point towards a bright future in which a lot of opportunities might be available for the organization; however the organization still faces a lot of challenges. Crossroads Inc should focus on finding incremental change in its organizing process. The incremental change is change that the Crossroad Inc will undergo through in the natural evolution process. For Crossroad Inc the incremental change process may take the form of introducing new HR system and process (as proposed above) that will augment the organization performance further and help the organization to get competitive advantage over its competitors. But in order to experience this incremental change the organization must be able to constantly monitor and evaluate the environmental forces and take actions in response to change that will provide opportunities to the organization and minimizes its threats. The organization must possessed the needed intellectual capital (Human Resources), who should be able adapt the organization policies according to the demand of the environment. These manager and leaders are known as change agent. According to Robbins Judge, â€Å"change agents are individuals and groups who lead and support the change process by taking responsibility for changing the existing behavior patterns of other people or the social system (Robbins Judge, 2005)†. Furthermore Crossroad Inc should established fair paying and reward system that best on justice and efforts. The organization should also facilitate the creation and execution the labour union approach that will serve as joining link between the organization and its workers. Moreover the Crossroad Inc should invest in its corporate cultures that are going to be form through the merger of two opposite culture. The organization should see this as opportunity to form a strong culture by initiating the proper change. Though training and development could be in progress in short term, the purpose is difficult to achieve at once. Therefore Crossroad Inc should adapt the medium or long-term training and development program for various functional department of the organization. Crossroad Inc can create a positive impact due to the fact that formation of the organization is the result of merger between two different companies who have two different management styles, corporate culture, traditions and workforce management system. Hence, the HR department assume a leading role in shaping the values of employees by creating an organization-wide culture that is based on shared values that will help the organization to realize its mission in the most coherent way. Works Cited Boselie, P., Paauwe, J. (2004). Human Resource Function Competencies in European Companies. Journal of Management , 120-122. Brockbank, W., Ulrich, D., Beatty, R. (1999). The Professional Devlopment: Creating the Future Creators at the University of Michigan Business School. Human Resource Management 38(2) , 111-118. Coff, R. (1994). Human Assets and organziation Control: Implication of the resource-based view. John M. Olin School of Business , Washington University. Losey, M. (2005). Future of Human Resource Management: Leaders Explore the Critical HR Issues of Today and Tommorrow. New Jersy: John Wiley Sons . Newman, D. R., Hodgets, R. M. (2005). Human Resource Management: A Customer Oriented Approach. USA: Prentice Hall Publishers. Newman, D. R., Hodgetts, R. M. (2005). Human Resource Management: A Customer Oriented Approach. USA: Prentice Hall. Peter, T. J., Waterman, R. (1982). In Search of Exchellence. New York: Waner Books. Plessis, D. (2007). Change, Organziational Devleopment and Culture: Human Resource Managements Role in the Future of South Africa. International Review of Business Research Papers 3(1) , 1-10. Robbins, Judge. (2005). Organizational Behavior. USA: Pearson. Wright, P., Dunford, B., Snell, S. (2001). Human Resource and the Resource Based View of the Firm. Journal of Management 27 , 701-721.

Management Of Acute Coronary Syndrome

Management Of Acute Coronary Syndrome Acute coronary syndrome encompasses a collection of three acute processes related to myocardial ischemia. These include: unstable angina, non-ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI), and ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). Myocardial ischemia is caused by inadequate perfusion within the myocardial tissue due to oxygen demand exceeding oxygen supply. In a healthy person the amount of oxygen required by the myocardium (O2 demand) is determined by heart rate, myocardial contractility, myocardial wall stress, and afterload. As explained by Antman, et al (2012), oxygen supply to the myocardium requires a satisfactory level of oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood (determined by the inspired level of oxygen, pulmonary function, and hemoglobin concentration and function) and an adequate level of coronary blood flow. The coronary vessels have the ability to adjust their level of resistance to adapt to the increased oxygen demand required by the myocardium during certain times (such as during physical exertion). Ischemic heart disease is typically caused by atherosclerosis, which is a buildup of plaque inside the lumen of the coronary vessels. The emergence of atherosclerosis in the vessels does not occur overnight. Antman, et al. (2012) found that atherogenesis in humans typically occurs over a period of many years, usually many decades and that growth of atherosclerotic plaques probably does not occur in a smooth, linear fashion but discontinuously, with periods of relative quiescence punctuated by periods of rapid evolution. The process of atherosclerosis begins with an abundance of lipoproteins in the blood stream. These lipoproteins bind to the walls of vessels and are eventually deposited within the intima of the arteries. To counteract this process, phagocytes are sent into the vessel to attack these foreign particles (Antman et al., 2012). Once the phagocytes are within the intima, they mature into macrophages and become lipid-laden foam cells (Antman et al., 2012). As these plaques advance calcification occurs. This process is thought to be a key step in the formation of atherosclerotic plaques (Antman et al., 2012). Normally this narrowing of the vessel lumen does not cause chest pain or discomfort. Eventually, however, these plaques may rupture. At this point platelet activation occurs, which eventually leads to clot formation at the sight of the plaque. This clot, or thrombus, may break off and lodge in a coronary vessel. These two processes are a common pathogenic finding with acute coronary syndrome (Lincoff, Califf, Anderson, Weisman, Aguirre, Kleiman, Harrington Topol, 1997). A partial occlusion of the coronary vessels due to a ruptured plaque/platelet complex causes unstable angina or a NSTEMI. In this case, the oxygen demands of the heart cannot be met. A complete occlusion causes a STEMI (Anderson, Adams, Antman, Bridges, Califf, Casey Jr, Chavey II Wright, 2011), which eventually leads to myocardial cell death. Discussion/Analysis The emergency department providers are often the first line of defense in the management of patients with chest pain. The ability to quickly evaluate whether or not the cause of chest pain is potentially fatal is of great importance. Critical chest pain can be broken down in to non-cardiac and cardiac causes. Non-cardiac causes include: pneumothorax, pulmonary embolism, and Boerhaaves syndrome. Acute coronary syndrome is among several cardiac causes of emergent chest pain. An accurate diagnosis of the cause of chest pain requires several key components. These include: patient history (including risk factors), physical examination, diagnostics, and labs. History History is instrumental during the evaluation of a patient with chest pain. Ischemic chest pain is often described as a severe pressure or squeezing and is classically described as the feeling of an elephant sitting on my chest. Typically this pain is described as substernal chest pain which radiates to the neck, jaw, or down the left arm. Additional details regarding the onset of chest pain can also serve as important clues. For example, pain on exertion that resolves with rest suggests stable angina, whereas new onset chest pain or chest pain at rest suggests unstable angina. A good method to differentiate cardiac from non-cardiac chest pain is whether the pain improves after administration of nitroglycerin (NTG). If the pain is relieved by NTG it is considered to be likely due to cardiac causes. Additional details suggesting cardiac origin are shortness of breath, nausea +/- vomiting, diaphoresis, and the presence of syncopal/near-syncopal episodes. It is important to note that a patient with chest pain often have a silent or atypical presentation. This is especially true in elderly men (Woon Lim, 2003) and diabetics (Tabibiazar Edelman, 2003). A patient with an atypical presentation may present with shortness of breath but lack the classical symptom of angina pectoris which radiates to the jaw or left arm. Commonly these patients complain of a feeling of indigestion or epigastric discomfort. Thus it is very important to consider ACS in these patients. The presence of risk factors plays an important role in the evaluation of chest pain, especially in a patient with known disease. The landmark Framingham Heart Study showed that cardiac risk can be influenced by diet, lifestyle, and familial risk factors (Oppenheimer, 2005). The more risk factors that a person carries, the greater their risk of developing ischemic heart disease. These risk factors are generally grouped into two categories: those that are modifiable and those that are not. Risk factors amendable are as follows: Tobacco smoke (American Heart Association, 2012) High blood cholesterol (AHA, 2012) High blood pressure (AHA, 2012) Physical inactivity (AHA, 2012) Obesity and overweight (AHA, 2012) Diabetes mellitus (AHA, 2012) Risk factors that cannot be changed include: Age- 82% of people who die of coronary heart disease are >65 (AHA, 2012) Male sex (AHA, 2012) Heredity- this includes both family history and race (AHA, 2012) Risk is higher among Mexican Americans, American Indians, native Hawaiians and some Asian Americans (AHA, 2012) Patients presenting with unstable angina or NSTEMI have variable levels of risk of cardiac death and ischemic cardiac events (Antman, Cohen, Bernink, McCabe, Horacek, Papuchis, Mautner Braunwald, 2000). The trial conducted by Antman et al. (2000) set out to develop a simple risk score that has broad applicability, is easily calculated at patient presentation, does not require a computer, and identifies patients with different responses to treatments for UA/NSTEMI. In doing so, the TIMI risk score was created. The scores are calculated using a score of 1 for each risk factor (7 total categories) assigned to a given patient. According to Antman, et al (2000) the score determines the patients risk of death, myocardial infarction, or severe ischemia. Antman, et al. (2000) found 7 prognostic variables that increase a patients risk. These are: Age 65 years or older At least 3 risk factors for coronary artery disease (male, dyslipidemia, smoking, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity family history) Prior coronary stenosis of 50% or more ST-segment deviation on ECG at presentation At least 2 anginal events in prior 24 hours Use of aspirin in prior 7 days Elevated serum cardiac markers In TIMI 11B/ESSENCE, event rates increase significantly as the TIMI-score increases (Antman et al., 2000). A score of 0/1 showed a 4.7% event rate; 8.3% for 2; 13.2% for 3; 19.9% for 4; 26.2% for 5; and 40.9% for 6/7. This landmark pair of trials allows practitioners a quick assessment of a patients risk of suffering a serious cardiac event. Physical Exam Physical exam is also a key component in the evaluation of a patient with chest pain, as many clues can suggest acute coronary syndrome. Unstable vital signs can be an important hint that the patient has suffered an MI. A general examination may reveal a patient who is diaphoretic and/or using accessory respiratory muscles. The cardiovascular exam could reveal a new murmur, S3/S4 gallop, or JVD. Finally, during the pulmonary exam rales may be heard upon auscultation. Diagnostics Diagnostic testing is an essential part of the evaluation of a patient presenting with chest pain. Several important diagnostic tools were introduced to the emergency department in the latter half of the 20th century that greatly improved the diagnosis and care of acute coronary syndrome. Electrocardiogram The introduction of coronary care units in the 1960s allows physicians to utilize the electrocardiogram (ECG) to monitor potential fatal arrhythmias in patients with acute myocardial infarction (Julian, 1987). Shortly thereafter the portable electrocardiogram became commonplace within the emergency department to assist in diagnosing complications of acute coronary syndrome (Drew, et al, 2004). A patient presenting with myocardial ischemia will typically have symmetrically-inverted T waves in leads V2-V6 (Dubin, 2000). As the name suggests, a STEMI is an ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction, though ST-segment elevation can occur with Prinzmetals angina in absence of an infarction (Dubin, 2000). Additionally, the ECG allows us to evaluate necrosis of the heart in the form of the presence of Q-waves. Q-waves are the first downward deflection of the QRS complex (Dubin, 2000). As Dubin (2000) explains, a positive Q-wave MI must: Lack a preceding spike in the QRS complex Be at least 1 mm wide or Have an amplitude of 1/3 the QRS complex An additional benefit of the ECG is that it allows the practitioner to identify the location of an acute event. Each lead corresponds to a particular location of the heart. For example, leads II, III, and AvF are the inferior leads and reflect the inferior portion of the heart. Due to the relatively high specificity but low sensitivity of the 12 lead ECG in diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome, a group of researchers in Canada recently set out to enhance ischemia detection by conducted a trial which added a new criteria using a three vessel specific leads derived from the traditional 12 lead ECG (Horacek, Mirmoghisi, Warren, Wagner Wang, 2008). This trial showed a statistically significant improvement in the ability of the vessel specific lead protocol to detect ischemia (Horacek et al., 2008). Horacek et al. (2008) found the following sensitivity and specificity for conventional STEMI criteria versus that of the vessel specific leads (VSL): Vessel Sensitivity Specificity Left Anterior Descending 74% conventional, 91% VSL 97% conventional, 97% VSL Right Coronary Artery 60% conventional, 70% VSL 94% conventional, 94% VSL Left Circumflex Artery 36% conventional, 71% VSL 100% conventional, 100% VSL Totals Set 60% conventional, 76% VSL 96% conventional, 96% VSL Based on these results, Horacek et al. (2008) concluded that using vessel specific leads can identify acute ischemia better than existing STEMI criteria. While a STEMI criteria using vessel specific leads has yet to become a mainstay within the standard emergency room protocol, this study provides exciting new improvements in the detection and management of patients with ACS. Serum Biomarkers The use of biochemical markers to detect cardiac cell death significantly evolved in the 1980s and 1990s. Initially, nonspecific markers such as aspartate transaminase and total creatinine kinase were used to detect myocardial necrosis (Lewandrowski, Chen Januzzi, 2002). During the mid-1990s the more cardiac specific enzymes CK-MB became the gold standard for detection of myocardial injury (Lewandrowski et al., 2002). CK-MB, which commonly rises 4-9 hours after the onset of angina, was not without its shortcomings. CK-MB may be falsely elevated due to several different causes, including recent strenuous exercise or skeletal muscle damage, or renal failure (Vivekanandan Swaminathan, 2010). In the late 1990s a more predictable biomarker, troponin I, was introduced for more accurate detection of acute coronary syndrome (Heeschen, Goldmann, Moeller Hamm, 1998). According to Heeschen et al. (1998), Troponin I can be evaluated at the bedside in the emergency room and has a higher diagno stic sensitivity for the detection of acute myocardial infarction (60% vs 48%) when compared to CK-MB. The reason for this improvement in accuracy is that troponin I is not found in skeletal muscle tissue or renal failure (Heeschen et al., 1998). As Heeschen et al. (1998) demonstrated in a head to head study that cTnI test systems produced no positive results in patients with end-stage renal failure and acute or chronic skeletal muscle injury, whereas 30% and 71% of the patients, respectively, had increased CK-MB mass concentrations. One disadvantage of troponin I, however, is that it has a lower sensitivity for the detection of acute myocardial infarction compared to that of CK-MB (Heeschen et al., 1998). This is due to an increased level of cTnI in patients with unstable angina (Heeschen et al., 1998). For this reason, a typical workup for a patient with chest pain in the emergency room includes both cTnI and CK-MB assays, which are drawn at presentation and every 3-6 hours therea fter (Ross, Bever, Uddin Hockman, 2000). Imaging A common component of a chest pain protocol is a chest x-ray. This is normally either a standard AP/lateral series or a portable chest x-ray if the patient is unable to get out of bed. The chest x-ray is useful to eliminate other possible causes of chest pain, such as an aortic aneurism or a pneumothorax. Contrast-enhanced computed tomographic angiography, or CTA, has become an integral part of the management of acute coronary syndrome due to its high sensitivity and specificity (Hoffman, Truong, Schoenfeld, Chou, Woodard, Nagurney, Pope Udelson, 2012). According to the ROMICAT-I study performed by Hoffman et al., (2012), CTA is an effective way to rule out myocardial infarction or ischemia as well as major cardiovascular events over the next 2 years from presentation. The data presented in ROMICAT-I showed that patients undergoing CTA decreased their hospital stay by 7.6 hours compared to standard therapy (Hoffman et al., 2012). Additionally, 50% of CTA patients were discharged from the hospital within 8.6 hours of presentation versus only 10% of patients undergoing standard therapy (Hoffman et al., 2012). Finally, the mean time to diagnosis was significantly decreased with the CT group versus the standard group (Hoffman et al., 2012). Overall, CTA was shown to reduce time spent in the hospital and time to diagnosis when compared to standard therapy for acute coronary syndrome. This is important to note considering the importance of quick coronary reperfusion of STEMI patients (Trost Lange, 2011). An additional observation was that these benefits were achieved without an increase in the cost of care (Hoffman et al., 2012). There was no overall difference between the groups in incidence of myocardial infarction 30 days after initial presentation (Hoffman et al., 2012). It is important to note that a patient undergoing a CTA is exposed to increased radiation. Additionally, patients undergoing CTA were more likely to undergo invasive coronary procedures when compared to standard evaluation. Based on this data, a question arises as to whether every patient presenting with possible acute coronary syndrome should undergo a CTA. The population studied in ROMICAT-I consisted of low to intermediate risk patients. Overall, CTA was shown to decrease the time to diagnosis and hospital stay for patients with possible ACS. In contrast, CTA increases a patients exposure to radiation and increases the likelihood that these patients will undergo an increase in invasive coronary procedures. These factors should all be considered when evaluating a patient presenting with chest pain. Treatment Pharmacologic Aspirin: Early aggressive aspirin (ASA) therapy (162-325mg followed by 81-162mg daily) is currently recommended for all patients with acute coronary syndrome, unless contraindicated (Kirk, Kontos Diercks, 2011). Plavix (Clopidogrel): According to the CURE trial Clopidogrel has been shown to provide a 20% reduction in cardiovascular death, MI, or stroke for NSTEMI patients with positive biomarkers or ischemic ECG changes (Kirk et al., 2011). It is important to note that the significant anti-platelet benefits of Clopidogrel administration should also be weighed against the increased risk of bleeding events if the patient may be a candidate for coronary artery bypass surgery. Antianginal Agents: Nitroglycerin (NTG): NTG is commonly administered by EMS respondents but can also be ordered once the patient arrives in the emergency department, typically sublingually or in the form of Nitropaste. Nitroglycerin dilates the coronary arteries, which reduces myocardial oxygen demand (Trost Lange, 2011). For this reason, it is important to evaluate the patients baseline blood pressure. If SBP is less than 100, caution should be used. Morphine: Intravenous morphine may be given in the event that chest pain is not relieved by NTG administration. Morphine reduces ventricular preload, thereby decreasing myocardial O2 demand (Trost Lange, 2011). Beta-Andrenergic Blockers: Beta-blockers decrease demand on the heart by decreasing heart rate, blood pressure, and myocardial contractility (Trost Lange, 2011). In a patient presenting with ACS, IV Lopressor is typically the agent of choice. These are especially effective agents in patients with elevated blood pressure or tachycardia. It is important to evaluate relevant contraindications to beta-blocker therapy, such as: HR Calcium-Channel Blockers: Diltiazem and Verapamil improve cardiac O2 supply by vasodilation of the coronary vessels, reduce O2 demand by reducing afterload, and reduce heart rate and contractility (Trost Lange, 2011). Calcium-channel blockers are 2nd line treatments for ACS and are typically reserved for patients who are unable to take a beta-blocker (Trost Lange, 2011). Contraindications include: sick sinus syndrome, 2Â ° or 3Â ° AV heart block, hypotension, acute MI with pulmonary congestion, atrial fibrillation or flutter with accessory bypass tract, and ventricular tachycardia, severe left ventricular dysfunction, and cardiogenic shock (Epocrates, 2012). Antithrombotic therapy: Antithrombotic therapy is recommended in a patient with suspected ACS, unless contraindicated (Trost Lange, 2011). Unfractionated heparin is easy to administer (IV) and is rapidly reversible with protamine in the event of bleeding. (Trost Lange, 2011). As with any antithrombotic, there is a risk of bleeding so these patients require close monitoring. Low molecular weight heparin is more predictable, has a lower incidence of thrombocytopenia, and does not require monitoring (Trost Lange, 2011). LMWH is the preferred agent for a more conservative, ischemia-guided strategy to prevent in hospital death or myocardial infarction (Trost Lange, 2011). Bivalirudin is an antithrombotic agent that does not cause thrombocytopenia (Trost Lange, 2011). It has been shown to be equally as effective as unfractionated heparin or LMWH but with a significantly lower rate of bleeding (Trost Lange, 2011). Oxygen administration should be administered for patients who are short of breath, showing signs of shock, or O2 saturation Next Step for NSTEMI or Unstable Angina Patients If a patient is considered to be high risk, such as a patient is at risk of future ischemia or infarction, an early invasive strategy is recommended (Trost Lange, 2011). For these patients, cardiac catheterization should be performed within 24-48 hours of admission (Trost Lange, 2011). In a low risk patient, a more conservative treatment is typically recommended. For these patients, catheterization is only recommended if recurrent or provocable ischemia occurs (Trost Lange, 2011). TIMI scores are a valuable tool to assess the patients risk and to guide the practitioner on the appropriate next step. Next Step for STEMI Patients Prompt coronary reperfusion is paramount in patients presenting with STEMI (Trost Lange, 2011). A door-to-balloon time of less than 90 minutes is considered to be the goal (Trost Lange, 2011). If the patient presents to a facility without a percutaneous coronary intervention facility the patient should be either: Treated with fibrinolytic therapy if not contraindicated (Trost Lange, 2011) Or Transferred to a nearby PCI facility (Trost Lange, 2011). Conclusion Acute coronary syndrome is spectrum of diseases typically caused by atherosclerotic disease. Emergency department practitioners must be able to rapidly diagnose and manage ACS patients in order to potentially preserve precious heart muscle. While treatments for ACS have improved dramatically over the past 30 years, several recent innovations have brought upon exciting new possibilities for the care of these patients. These include new vessel specific ECG leads, cardiac specific biomarkers, and the use of computed-tomographic angiography to assess patients with possible ACS. One component of the management algorithm that has not changed is the need for a strong history and physical examination to aid in diagnosis. Urgency in obtaining diagnosis cannot be stressed enough, and patients presenting with STEMI should be rapidly sent for PCI or transferred to a facility with PCI capabilities.

The Two-Dimensional Character of Virginia Woolfs To The Lighthouse :: To The Lighthouse Essays

To the Lighthouse  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Two-Dimensional Character   In the novel, To the Lighthouse, Virginia Woolf illustrates the character of Mr. Ramsay, a husband and father of eight children.   As a husband, he degrades and mentally abuses his wife, Mrs. Ramsay, and as a father, he disparages and psychologically injures his children.   Yet, Mr. Ramsay has another side -- a second dimension.   He carries the traits of a very compassionate and loving husband and a securing and nurturing father. Although Woolf depicts Mr. Ramsay as crude, brusque, and insensitive, he, nonetheless, desires happiness and welfare for his family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Even though Mr. Ramsay frequently scolds and denounces Mrs. Ramsay, he still seeks happiness and comfort for his wife.   For example, after Mrs. Ramsay lies to James about the next day's weather, "He [Mr. Ramsay] stamped his foot on the stone step. 'Damn you,' he said." (31) Mr. Ramsay devastates his wife's emotions.   Because of a little lie, the temperamental Mr. Ramsay hurts, if not kills, Mrs. Ramsay's emotions.   Still, right after the incident, Mr. Ramsay self-reflects and   "[he was] ashamed of that petulance [that he brought to his wife]." (32) Mr. Ramsay understands and regrets the sorrow he brought on Mrs. Ramsay.   He sympathizes with her and is "ashamed" for what he had done.   Mr. Ramsay wants to appease his wife and make her happy as a result of the torment that he inflicted on her.   Next, Woolf again illustrates Mr. Ramsay's insensitive dimension when Mr. Ramsay makes Mrs. Ramsay "bend her head as if to let the pelt of jagged hail, the drench of dirty water, bespatter her unrebuked." (32) Mr. Ramsay is heartless to his wife's feelings; it is as if he enjoys "drenching" Mrs. Ramsay and enjoys seeing her in mental anguish.   However, Woolf later contrasts the callous Mr. Ramsay with a more sensitive and caring Mr. Ramsay:   So stiffened and composed the lines of her face in a habit of sternness that when her husband passed†¦ he could not help noting, the sternness at the heart of her beauty.   It saddened him, and her remoteness pained him. (64)      Therefore, here Mr. Ramsay is portrayed as a sympathetic and caring husband that is "pained" by the expression of sorrow on his wife's face.   Mr. Ramsay is sensitive to his wife's feelings and desires her well-being.

Super Elevations :: physics science

Have you ever been driving down the road and approach a turn too fast? What happens? You and the car undergo centrifugal force and you as well as the car are pushed away from the turn, or up the grade also know as a superelevation. An engineer must balance this force raising the grade on one side of the road. It should be noted that under theoretical observations steering would be effortless but in order to provide these ideal conditions the friction factor would be zero and the vehicle weight would balance the centrifugal force ¹. In the real world we have friction and cannot afford to build the extremely steep slope of ËÅ"30 º every time we need an off ramp or horizontal curve. In order for the operator to comfortably maneuver a curve there are several variables that must be accounted for, the radius of the curve, friction and velocity. Radius length may depend on sight distance and right of way, or property lines as well as sight distance. Friction depends on the surface properties of various materials and climate. The slope and velocity are usually dependent on the variables just described. While building and designing these roads, it is industry standard to put 1/3 of the change in grade within the horizontal curve and 2/3 of the transition length on the tangent. In Layman’s terms, by the time the car approaches the first part of the curve, 2/3 of the grade has already been built. This assures smooth transition for the driver to maneuver the curve ³. In order to get a better idea of what kind of friction coefficients are used in Alaska, we can look at the Badger Road Interchange construction project on the Richardson Highway ². The nortbound on ramp (from Badger Road) will have a speed limit of 35 mph a radius of 135 meters and a superelevation of 5.5%. From this data one may find the friction coefficient, ( µ) to be equal to 0.10. Another example taken from the same project, observed from the off ramp in the south bound lane will have a radius of 253 meters, a super of 6% and a speed limit of 45 mph  µ was observed to be 0.09, which is just enough traction to make these corners at the posted limit. A friction coefficient that small leads the author to assume the engineers designed these turns to be taken under extremely slick conditions.

Universal Robina Corporation

I, Janice A. Sandoval, 22 years old, a graduate from the University of the Philippines under the degree of BS Food Technology, am applying to become a part of the Research and Development Team of your company. I have read that you urgently need someone who has a background for food production and development.I was a consistent member of the honor roll and had graduated on time. Way back in 2004, I have been equipped of the knowledge regarding food development at our university and have undergone rigorous trainings at Edward Keller as a Quality Assurance for my on the job training or practicum. If I will be hired here, I can assure you that I will be one of the contributors in the success of your company.As references, you can consult the attached resume in this letter. I will be willing to attend any interview for the faster processing of this application.Thank you very much.Sincerely Yours,Janice A. SandovalAlison Doyle. Sample Cover Letter – Block Format. 2007. New York Comp any Times.  Ã‚   September 3,2007. http://jobsearch.about.com/od/coverlettersamples/a/coverblock.htm About Universal Robina Corporation. 2007. September 3, 2007  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Internet as a Threat to Old Media

Broadcasting internet as a threat to old media Introduction Just a few clicks on the mouse and a whole world of information are available for free. The internet, whilst largely contributing to declining newspaper, magazines and books sales, decreasing the percentage of advertising on TV and radio, increasing of internet piracy and illegal downloading of films and music. Internet can at least provide a huge resource for journalist, authors, musicians, photographers, producers, editors, directors and all information workers.On the other hand, audiences and users of media mainly still believe on old media as they gain their information and follow latest news (which affect public opinion) from old media because they trust it and rely on its credibility when they compare it with internet . they thought that internet is the world of rumors. http://technorati. com/technology/it/article/do-you-see-the-internet-as/#ixzz16VrHKY7B Background Books writing with words was invented by the Sumerian s (southern Iraq) about five thousand years ago (c. 3100 BC). As far as we know it derived from symbols used for the keeping of accounts around four hundred years earlier.At first, writing was restricted to inscriptions, e. g. on stone, seals, brooches, and containers. The Sumerians then developed baked clay tablets, which can be regarded as the first books. These were soon followed by the papyrus rolls of the Egyptians, made from a plant native only to the Nile Valley. The traditional modern form of the book is called the codex. Meanwhile paper was invented in China as early as 105 AD, and was at first prepared from bark and hemp. This paper developed to a high standard, and paper-making later spread to Japan (c. 10 AD), and then to the Arab world along the Silk Road, via Samarkand in Central Asia. The Arabs introduced paper into Europe via Spain. Printing Printing was another Chinese invention. However such cast type did appear in Korea before developing quite independently in Eur ope. A major advance in the West was Johannes Gutenberg's printing from cast metal type (c. 1450 AD). However this was still hand composed on a mostly wooden press. This still relied on human power to operate. A steam-powered press invented by the German Friedrich Koenig followed in 1810.An American, Richard Hoe, invented the faster rotary press in 1846. Printing raced further ahead when the mechanical composition of type was perfected in 1886 with the Linotype compositor. Lithography was long used to print pictures for books. From this method came the idea for offset printing – in 1904 the first offset press appeared. In offset printing the method of â€Å"relief† printing from cast metal type, traditional since Gutenberg, is replaced by a smooth photographic plate. By 1980 offset printing was taking over from the older method in many countries. That was only the beginning of the modern printing revolution.From 1968 computers became involved in printing (the Linotron) . In 1983 the offset plate progressed to a format involving the laser-beam transference of stored digital information. Gradually printing worldwide became a digital and computerized process, and mechanical printing began to disappear. The Digital Revolution This change led to the irony that a series of advanced digital electronic processes now produced the traditional analogue material book. It was only a matter of time before the logical conclusion would be drawn – that books could exist in a purely electronic form.Moreover such books could incorporate new possibilities undreamed of in the printed codex book. For example, they could be instantly updated, be searchable electronically, include sounds ; video and even a dictionary, and interact directly with the new Internet, and therefore contain instant links to further information. The advent of digital book files also meant that traditional physical books could now be printed individually as required from a stored computer file (Print on Demand, or POD), rather than in the traditional large print runs.This meant both that books could be cheaper in general, and that it was financially practicable to print them in limited numbers for a more restricted readership than before. So rather than immediately displacing the printed codex, the advent of the digital book meant that the physical book could now flourish as never before. At the same time this change prepared the ground for a decisive future shift towards electronic reading. Dawn of the e-Book The electronic book (e-book), existing as a virtual entity stored in a digital file, began to emerge in its own right in the last years of the twentieth century.Like many new technologies it suffered from technical teething troubles, ineffective or inappropriate marketing, commercial rivalries that slowed its progress, and initial public scepticism or indifference. Gradually however the electronic book became capable of being read from an increasing variety of devices, and its vast potential began to be more widely understood. It became clear that the e-book would represent the next leap forward in the onward march of the book. While it can simply represent traditional texts it can also become a layered and interactive multimedia experience.Indeed the book of the future could even be spontaneously assembled from multiple sources for specific educational or entertainment purposes, by a single reader or group. The e-book therefore holds the promise of adding an unprecedented degree of flexibility to the concept of the book. The book is one of humanity's most enduring cultural artifacts and treasures. As it evolves, the greatest threat to its future is therefore not from technical advances but from the danger of new generations losing the inclination to read.The ability to read and write is our greatest tool in education, and, apart from the family, the single most important medium existing for the transmission of ideas and the continuance o f an evolving human culture. http://www. e-book. com. au/bookhistory. htm Newspapers â€Å"Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter. † -Thomas Jefferson, 1787. The history of newspapers is an often-dramatic chapter of the human experience going back some five centuries.In Renaissance Europe handwritten newsletters circulated privately among merchants, passing along information about everything from wars and economic conditions to social customs and â€Å"human interest† features. The first printed forerunners of the newspaper appeared in Germany in the late 1400's in the form of news pamphlets or broadsides, often highly sensationalized in content. In the English-speaking world, the earliest predecessors of the newspaper were corantos, small news pamphlets produced only when some event worthy of notice occurred.The first successively publi shed title was The Weekly Newes of 1622. The first true newspaper in English was the London Gazette of 1666. Fo In America the first newspaper appeared in Boston in 1690, entitled Publick Occurrences. Published without authority, it was immediately suppressed, its publisher arrested, and all copies were destroyed. The first successful newspaper was the Boston News-Letter, begun by postmaster John Campbell in 1704. Although it was heavily subsidized by the colonial government the experiment was a near-failure, with very limited circulation.Two more papers made their appearance in the 1720's, in Philadelphia and New York, and the Fourth Estate slowly became established on the new continent. In 1783 there were forty-three newspapers in print. The press played a vital role in the affairs of the new nation, representing all shades of political opinion. The ratification of the Bill of Rights in 1791 at last guaranteed of freedom of the press, and America's newspapers began to take on a ce ntral role in national affairs. Growth continued in every state.In the Jacksonian populist 1830's, advances in printing and papermaking technology led to an explosion of newspaper growth, the emergence of the â€Å"Penny Press†; it was now possible to produce a newspaper that could be sold for just a cent a copy. Previously, newspapers were the province of the wealthy, literate minority. This sudden availability of cheap, interesting reading material was a significant stimulus to the achievement of the nearly universal literacy now taken for granted in America. In the 1850's powerful, giant presses appeared, able to print ten thousand complete papers per hour.At this time the first â€Å"pictorial† weekly newspapers emerged; they featured for the first time extensive illustrations of events in the news, as woodcut engravings made from correspondents' sketches or taken from that new invention, the photograph. Reporters, called â€Å"specials,† became the darlings of the public and the idols of youngsters everywhere. Many accounts of battles turned in by these intrepid adventurers stand today as the definitive histories of their subjects. Newspaper growth continued unabated in the postwar years. By the 1890's the first circulation figures of a million copies per issue were recorded.At this period appeared the features of the modern newspaper, bold â€Å"banner† headlines, extensive use of illustrations, â€Å"funny pages,† plus expanded coverage of organized sporting events. The rise of â€Å"yellow journalism† also marks this era. This is also the age of media consolidation, as many independent newspapers were swallowed up into powerful â€Å"chains†; with regrettable consequences for a once fearless and incorruptible press, many were reduced to vehicles for the distribution of the particular views of their owners, and so remained, without competing papers to challenge their viewpoints.By the 1910's, all the esse ntial features of the recognizably modern newspaper had emerged. Radio and television have gradually supplanted newspapers as the nation's primary information sources, so it may be difficult initially to appreciate the role newspapers. Not complete http://www. historicpages. com/nprhist. htm, Phil Barber, 03/08/2010 Magazines The term â€Å"magazine† is generally acknowledged to have come into usage with the publication in the 1730s of the Gentleman’s Magazine by Edward Cave. Its aim was to entertain with stories of crime and romance.It soon proved popular, not just for sale but for rental in public houses, coffee houses and barber shops. Magazines were more affordable than newspapers because printing technology allowed mass production. Taking their cue from America, British publishers produced all-fiction magazines such as Romantic Confessions and similar ‘penny dreadfuls’. General interest magazines such as Answers, Titbits (Tit Bits from all the Most In teresting Books, Periodicals and Contributors in the World), Home Chat, Comic Cuts and Pearson’s Weekly were also hugely popular. The early 20th century saw new styles of magazine such as Reader’s Digest hich included edited versions (digests) of articles and stories. International editions followed the same formula, later developing subscription as a means of ensuring a place in the competitive magazine market. â€Å"Life† magazine which traded on the quality of its pictures in a period when photography was accepted as an art form and photojournalism was regarded as a means of social commentary. â€Å"Life† used the slogan: ‘To see life, to see the world; to witness great events; to watch the faces of the poor and the gestures of the proud; to see strange things’.It had many imitators (or, perhaps more kindly, admirers) such as Picture Post and Illustrated in Britain and Paris Match and Stern in Europe. The end of the Second World War saw ne w titles emerged to satisfy the needs of increasingly affluent consumers who now had business and technical interests as well as expanding leisure pursuits. Interestingly, the emerging broadcast media – particularly television – were accommodated by the magazine industry that began to produce publications which included listings, reviews and background material.Later spin-offs would include comics based on television characters, and magazines dedicated to specific topics or programmes such as BBC Wildlife and Gardener's World. A web search will reveal the extent to which the big companies have other interests, particularly media interests other than publishing magazines. The Guardian Media Guide contains details of the sites run by all the main players in the publishing business. Ezine is an electronic newsletter or magazine. Ezine could reside on a website, intranet system or be sent throughout any network, including the largest network; the Internet.The key to succes s for the big companies is the advertising revenue generated by magazines, and the ability of specific interest magazines to provide clearly-defined target audiences. Not that there is complete freedom to publish any material that will make money: there are laws and regulations that affect magazines just are there are for other media forms. 2000 The Media Guide edited by Steve Peak and Paul Fisher (Fourth Estate) 2001 The Media Guide edited by Steve Peak and Paul Fisher (Fourth Estate) EzineArticles. om Lance Winslow, Expert Author , 18 Jul 2006 A decade on the streets Simon Rogers and Xan Brooks, in Media Guardian September 10 2001 http://www. mediaed. org. uk/posted_documents/Magazines. html Radio Radio owes its development to two other inventions, the telegraph and the telephone, all three technologies are closely related. Radio technology began as â€Å"wireless telegraphy†. It started with the discovery of â€Å"radio waves† – electromagnetic waves that hav e the capacity to transmit music, speech, pictures and other data invisibly through the air.Many devices work by using electromagnetic waves including: radio, microwaves, cordless phones, remote controlled toys, television broadcasts, and more. Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian inventor, proved the feasibility of radio communication. Radio-telegraphy is the sending by radio waves the same dot-dash message (morse code) used in a telegraph. Transmitters at that time were called spark-gap machines. It was developed mainly for ship-to-shore and ship-to-ship communication. Lee Deforest invented space telegraphy, the triode amplifier and the Audion.In the early 1900s, the great requirement for further development of radio was an efficient and delicate detector of electromagnetic radiation. The result of Lee DeForest's work was the invention of amplitude-modulated or AM radio that allowed for a multitude of radio stations. Online radio streaming was born in the 90s as a solution for the music industry to reinvent itself or as a solution for activists. WXYC is the first traditional radio station to announce broadcasting on the Internet. The term internet radio isn't just about live streaming on the internet but can also be an archive site with audio files.Online radio can be a terrestrial radio station that broadcasts to a bigger market, or an independent internet-only operator that is just starting. Web radio stations are a good solution for new markets, delivering independent music that listeners can't hear on regular radio. The advantage of internet radio services is that its services are usually accessible from anywhere in the world. Internet radio is distributed most often via streaming, in audio formats like mp3, Ogg Vorbis, Windows Media Audio, RealAudio and others. http://www. radiobunch. com/online-radio-history. html, http://inventors. bout. com/od/rstartinventions/a/radio_2. htm , Mary Bellis Television In the late 1800s, Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, a student in Germ any, developed the first ever mechanical module of television. He succeeded in sending images through wires with the help of a rotating metal disk. This technology was called the ‘electric telescope’ that had 18 lines of resolution. In 1923, an American inventor called Charles Jenkins used the disk idea of Nipkow to invent the first ever practical mechanical television system. From 1926 till 1931, the mechanical television system saw many innovations.Although the discoveries of these men in the department of mechanical television were very innovative, by 1934, all television systems had converted into the electronic system, which is what is being used even today. In 1927, Philo Taylor Farnsworth was able to invent a working model of electronic television that was based on Swinton’s ideas. His experiments had started when he was just a little boy of 14 years. By the time he became 21, Philo had created the first electronic television system, which did away with th e rotating disks and other mechanical aspects of mechanical television.Thus was born the television system which is the basis of all modern TVs. In 1948 there were early tests of cable television in the rural area of Lansford, PA. In 1956 the Ampex quadruplex videotape replaced the kinescope; making it possible for television programs to be produced anywhere, as well as greatly improving the visual quality on home sets. In 1957 the 1st practical remote control, invented by Robert Adler and called the â€Å"Space Commander,† was introduced by Zenith.. This â€Å"Golden Age† of television also saw the establishment of several significant technological standards.These included the National Television Standards Committee (NTSC) standards for black and white (1941) and color television (1953). In 1952 the FCC made a key decision, via what is known as the Sixth Report and Order, to permit UHF broadcasting for the 1st time on 70 new channels (14 to 83). This was an essential decision because the Nation was already running out of channels on VHF (channels 2-13). That decision gave 95% of the U. S. television markets three VHF channels each, establishing a pattern that generally continues today.Thus the â€Å"Golden Age† was a period of intense growth and expansion, introducing many of the television accessories and methods of distribution that we take for granted today. 1962 brought the 1st transatlantic reception of a television signal via the TELSTAR satellite. High definition television (HDTV) was also introduced during this period. In 1981 NHK, the Japanese National Broadcasting company, demonstrated their 1,125 line HDTV system to the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers at their Winter conference in San Francisco.In 1994 HDTV standards were established and a plan for the transition from analog to digital transmission of television programming has been rolled out throughout the decade. Not complete http://www. thehistoryoftelevi sion. com/ , Geno Jezek, 2006 http://www. fcc. gov/omd/history/tv/1990-today. html internet The Internet has become such an integral part of our lives, with such powerful capabilities, that it is easy to forget that this technological marvel was created by the long, hard, dedicated efforts of human beings — folks who had a vision of what universal networking could become and worked to make it happen.The conceptual foundation for creation of the Internet was largely created by three individuals and a research conference, each of which changed the way we thought about technology by accurately predicting its future: †¢Vannevar Bush wrote the first visionary description of the potential uses for information technology with his description of the â€Å"memex† automated library system. †¢Norbert Wiener invented the field of Cybernetics, inspiring future researchers to focus on the use of technology to extend human capabilities. The 1956 Dartmouth Artificial Intelli gence conference crystallized the concept that technology was improving at an exponential rate, and provided the first serious consideration of the consequences. †¢Marshall McLuhan made the idea of a global village interconnected by an electronic nervous system part of our popular culture. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik I, triggering US President Dwight Eisenhower to create the ARPA agency to regain the technological lead in the arms race.ARPA appointed J. C. R. Licklider to head the new IPTO organization with a mandate to further the research of the SAGE program and help protect the US against a space-based nuclear attack. Licklider evangelized within the IPTO about the potential benefits of a country-wide communications network, influencing his successors to hire Lawrence Roberts to implement his vision. A special computer called an Interface Message Processor was developed to realize the design, and the ARPANET went live in early October, 196 9.The first communications were between Leonard Kleinrock's research center at the University of California at Los Angeles, and Douglas Engelbart's center at the Stanford Research Institute. The first networking protocol used on the ARPANET was the Network Control Program. In 1983, it was replaced with the TCP/IP protocol invented Wby Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and others, which quickly became the most widely used network protocol in the world. In 1990, the ARPANET was retired and transferred to the NSFNET.The NSFNET was soon connected to the CSNET, which linked Universities around North America, and then to the EUnet, which connected research facilities in Europe. Thanks in part to the NSF's enlightened management, and fueled by the popularity of the web, the use of the Internet exploded after 1990, causing the US Government to transfer management to independent organizations starting in 1995. And here we are. http://www. livinginternet. com/i/ii. htm